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e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL13 N2, TD1

Thematic dossier

Perspectives on China’s international presence

December 2022

THE IMPACT OF CHINESE ASSERTIVENESS ON GLOBAL ORDER

BHAWNA POKHARNA

bhawnap@rediffmail.com

Associate Professor of Political Science at Government Meera Girls College Udaipur Rajasthan

(India). She has done her Graduation and Post Graduation from Mohan Lal Sukhadia University

Udaipur. She was awarded Gold Medal in Post Graduation. She was Awarded Ph D on India -

China Relations. She has 25 years of teaching and research experience. She has Published widely

in various journals of repute and has presented papers in seminars and Conferences. Two

scholars have been awarded Ph D under her supervision and five are registered at present.

Abstract

Chinese assertiveness has increased considerably in the international arena, with enhanced

Chinese influence in all spheres. China has become a political, economic, and military power,

flexing its muscles in the international politics. China’s rise has affected the existing liberal

global order and caused the advent of a new cold war. China, being a staunch communist

regime is presenting a challenge to the liberal international order. Thus, the present paper

attempts to explore how Chinese assertiveness has affected the global order.

Keywords

China’s Rise; Liberal International Order; Chinese Assertiveness; New Cold War; Wolf Warrior

Diplomacy

Resumo

A assertividade chinesa aumentou consideravelmente na arena internacional, com uma maior

influência chinesa em todas as esferas. A China tornou-se uma potência política, económica,

e militar, flexionando os seus músculos na política internacional. A ascensão da China afetou

a ordem global liberal existente e provocou o advento de uma nova guerra fria. A China, sendo

um regime comunista convicto, apresenta um desafio à ordem internacional liberal. Assim, o

presente documento tenta explorar como a assertividade chinesa tem afetado a ordem global.

Palavras-chave

Ascensão da China; Ordem Internacional Liberal; Assertividade Chinesa; Nova Guerra Fria;

Diplomacia Wolf Warrior

How to cite this article

Pokharna, Bhawna (2022). The impact of chinese assertiveness on global order. Janus.net, e-

journal of international relations. VOL13 N2, TD1 - Thematic dossier “Perspectives on China's

International Presence: Strategies, Processes and Challenges”, December 2022. Consulted

[online] on date of the last view, https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT22.3

Article received on June 13, 2022 and accepted on April 7, 2002

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL13 N2, TD1

Thematic dossier – Perspectives on China’s international presence - December 2022, pp. 38-54

The impact of Chinese assertiveness on global order

Bhawna Pokharna

THE IMPACT OF CHINESE ASSERTIVENESS ON GLOBAL ORDER

BHAWNA POKHARNA

Introduction

The paper attempts to shed light on the impact of China’s rise in the international arena.

China has made remarkable progress since the Communist Revolution, which took place

in the year 1949. Internal reform programmes such as the Great Leap Forward, the

Second Revolution, the Four Modernizations, and the China Dream all resulted in China's

development in all spheres of statecraft. Belt and Road Initiative has augmented Chinese

outreach across the globe and transformed it into a global player. China's transition to a

market-oriented economy while remaining an ardent Communist regime politically is a

distinctive feature of blended government. Fruits of economic liberalisation were reaped

in the form of China's moving fast on the path of becoming a superpower of the 21st

century. Simultaneously, China’s military advancement with modernised weapons and a

well-developed military system and progress in other fields has taken it far ahead of

other countries. Chinese confidence is evident in its dealings in the international arena,

where it strives to take things in its stride, thus posing a challenge to the existing

international order. The paper endeavours to apply the analytical approach and the

theory of liberalisation to make the study rigorous.

The rise of China in the 21st century is a great phenomenon which has changed geo-

strategic equations and the course of global order. The increasing power of China has

enhanced its assertiveness in the global arena, which seems to be a threat to the existing

liberal international order. The paper focuses on recent developments that are taking

place, especially during the pandemic era, which pose a challenge to the existing

international order. China boasts of becoming a superpower with substantial economic

growth, military modernization, a strong political system, and farsighted leadership in

the international arena. The irresponsible, impetuous, and rash behaviour of China during

the COVID-19 global pandemic has again raised questions about the future of liberal

world order. A New World Order with China as its major player is definitely not safe and

secure. Since Xi Jinping became President, China has been moving fast to become a

superpower for a host of reasons. Xi’s vision of China Dream, the Belt and Road Initiative,

his tough stance on various international issues, his hegemonic attitude toward

neighbours, and the overall progress of the Chinese nation. The Belt and Road Initiative

has unfolded Chinese global ambitions and pushed its outreach tremendously. Now China

discards the existing Liberal International Order dominated by western powers and ups

the ante to become a major player in the international arena.

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VOL13 N2, TD1

Thematic dossier – Perspectives on China’s international presence - December 2022, pp. 38-54

The impact of Chinese assertiveness on global order

Bhawna Pokharna

China Dream

China Dream is a concept proposed by Chinese President Xi Jinping that reflects his vision

for his country and its people, which is to make it enormously strong by regaining the

Chinese nation's lost glory. Xi’s early days of hardship shaped him as a more confident

and powerful leader and helped him to develop his own vision of his country and its

people, which was manifested in his decisions and actions after he became President.

President XI promulgated his vision of the Chinese Dream, which means a "great

rejuvenation of the Chinese nation". He aspires to modernise China with more economic

development, military advancement, and political reforms. The vision seeks a judicious

combination of power and prosperity to enable 1.4 billion Chinese to become rich, to

become powerful and to be respected. (Allison, 2017).

Xi’s war against corruption during the initial years of his presidency consolidated his grip

on power. His massive communist party restructuring programme and attempt to connect

it with the masses won him applause and further consolidated his position. As a mark of

Mr. Xi's influence, the Chinese Communist Party voted in favour of writing his philosophy,

called "Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for the New Era,"

into its constitution. Prior to Xi, Mao, who led the communist revolution in 1949, and

Deng Xiaoping, who implemented economic reforms in the 1980s, had established it as

a significant fundamental law of the land. (BBC, 2021: May 12th) As Maoism was the

post-revolutionary ideology of communist China, nationalism is now a core ideology in

China. Xi’s consolidation of power and his nationalistic rhetoric established him as a

paramount leader. His crackdown on corruption, suppression of freedom of the press and

dissidents, and his hold on power made him the most authoritarian leader since Chairman

Mao. Xi was also instrumental in amending the Chinese constitution to end the

compulsion of a maximum of two terms for the president, which was supposed to be a

chance for President Xi to remain in power for an indefinite term (Susan Shirk, 2018).

All these developments contributed to securing his position as paramount leader.

Moreover, his hardline attitude towards Taiwan, Hong Kong, in the South China Sea, with

Southeast Asian neighbours, with India, Japan, and the USA, indicates Chinese

assertiveness in the international arena.

The Belt and Road Initiative

The Chinese Belt and Road Initiative is the signature project of Xi Jinping aimed at

establishing China as a superpower of the 21st century. The project intends to augment

trade and cooperation by connecting different continents of the globe. The project is an

attempt to resuscitate the legacy of the ancient Silk Road stretching from Asia to Europe,

which got its name from the silk that was carried along it. The project is taking shape

with various connectivity and logistic projects being built at various places across the

globe. The BRI has myriad objectives, such as infusing strong impetus to enhance

political mutual trust; deepening economic cooperation; promoting people-to-people

contact; and increasing cultural exchanges among relevant countries. These objectives

are to be achieved through joint cooperation, common development, and regional

integration. All countries along the Maritime Silk Road have appreciated the plan and aim

to develop and benefit together from the project.

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The impact of Chinese assertiveness on global order

Bhawna Pokharna

The widespread network of trade routes developed as part of the initiative will link China

to many established and developing markets, creating considerable opportunities for

Chinese industries. The PRC believes that opening up trade to new markets in this way

will sustain the country’s economic growth long into the future while also raising living

standards for a large portion of the Chinese people. The project aims to divert Chinese

manufacturing overcapacity to other markets in the world. The project is also an attempt

to rectify economic inequality among the different regions of China itself.

The 19th Party Congress of the Communist Party of China, which was held in 2017, has

also approved the project (PWC, 2017), which has multiple aims to enhance China’s

international stature and also to boost domestic industries. The project seems important

also in the manner of re-establishing the credibility and legitimacy of the Communist

party by creating a situation of economic affluence in the country. The project involves

the global ambitions of China as it would augment its influence considerably and

contribute to making it a new superpower of the 21st century. The project connects 4.4

billion people, or roughly 66 percent of the global population of more than 65 countries,

with a GDP of $29 trillion. The gargantuan project would significantly enhance Chinese

outreach across the globe while giving it ample opportunities to meddle in global affairs.

The Chinese presence in every nook and corner is a giant step for China, which is very

much in consonance with its grand strategy to become a superpower.

Wolf Warrior Diplomacy

China has always been an aggressive country, but its "wolf warrior" diplomacy became

prominent during the pandemic period. It denotes the aggressive posture and non-

leaning down attitude of Chinese diplomats. Chinese envoys are getting loudmouthed in

their speeches and tweets, and adopting an aggressive posture by which Chinese

authorities have to protect their national interests. It also suggests the chauvinistic

attitude of China and a sense of contentment where there is no need to maintain friendly

ties with other countries. The nomenclature has been taken from the Chinese movie Wolf

Warrior II, released in 2017, having the patriotic slogan "Whoever offends the Chinese

will be wiped out, no matter how far away". The term has been described by different

scholars characterising Chinese foreign policy, such as “the new mixture of confidence

and increasing insecurity combined” (Peter Martin, 2020), “assertive, proactive, and

high-profile” (Zhiqun, 2021), "confrontational and combative" (Jiang and Westcott,

2021), “Major Country Diplomacy” (Smith, 2021), “Cyber-Nationalism” (Sullivan and

Weixiang,2022) etc.

Chinese leaders and officials staunchly believe that their belligerent attitude and

aggressive posture are necessary to defend China’s national pride and self-respect, and

it is also supposed to be a response to baseless targeting by the western powers. China’s

former envoy to the UK, Liu Xiaoming, proclaimed this changed Chinese attitude as a

need of the hour and said, "Where there is a ‘wolf’, there is a warrior." (Kewalramani,

2020). Chinese national interest diplomats seek to defend Chinese national interests in

a confrontational way. It is a sort of justified defence against the west, which is

determined to contain it. Wolf warrior diplomacy is manifested in Chinese actions while

dealing with its neighbours and other countries. Hua Chunying and Zhao Lijian, the

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Chinese Foreign Ministry spokespersons, took to Twitter to defend Chinese policies during

the COVID-19 outbreak. Zhao replied in a tweet in March 2020 that "if someone claims

that China’s exports are toxic, then stop wearing China-made masks and protective

gowns." He said in another tweet that "It might be (the) US army who brought the

epidemic to Wuhan." (Zhiqun Zhu, 2021).

In the early 2020s, at the time of the massive outbreak of the covid pandemic from

Wuhan, the world condemned China for playing a dubious role, which resulted in

spreading the crisis. The Chinese behaviour reflected a rash and berserk attitude which

culminated in the severance of ties with many countries. For instance, in April 2020, a

Chinese coastguard ship sank a Vietnamese fishing trawler near the Paracel Islands, and

when Vietnam objected, the Chinese foreign ministry responded by saying Vietnam’s

claims to the area are "illegal." (Zhiqun Zhu, 2021) China has shown acute fierceness in

its relations with Hong Kong, Taiwan, South China Sea, USA, Australia, India, USA, Japan,

Russia, etc.

Hong Kong

China’s violation of the "one country and two systems" principle and human rights abuses

are doing much harm to the people and their freedom in Hong Kong. China introduced a

new security law in the year 2020 to curb the freedom of the press in Hong Kong. The

National Security Law, which identifies four types of activities such as terrorism,

secession, subversion, and collusion with "foreign forces" as punishable, carries a

maximum sentence of life in prison. Article 35 of this law says that anybody convicted of

crimes under the law will be deprived of the right to run for public office for life. (Human

Rights Watch, 2021). The law discards Hong Kong’s Basic Law and also disregards the

International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights. The authorities’ crackdown on Apple

Daily, which resulted in its closure, suggests the brutality of the law. (HRW, 2021). At

the G-7 Summit in 2021, the leaders called for the restoration of political institutions in

Hong Kong and to end the unwarranted suppression of those who promote democratic

values, rights, and freedoms in Hong Kong. (The Guardian, 2021: March 13th).

China has introduced myriad laws to curb freedom of speech and democracy in Hong

Kong since taking over the island territory in the year 1997. In the year 2003, the Hong

Kong government introduced national security legislation to prevent treason, sedition,

subversion, and secession against the Chinese government. In 2012, it amended Hong

Kong school curricula to promote Chinese identity. In 2014, Beijing proposed universal

suffrage to vote for the chief executive of the city, but the candidate should be from the

short list of China. In 2019, China proposed an Extradition Law which could have allowed

extradition to the Chinese mainland for prosecution. This saw a massive protest for

months by the people of Hong Kong and caught international attention as well. Finally,

the Chinese government caved in to enormous pressure and withdrew this legislation.

(Maizland, 2022).

Thereafter, China put forward Security Law 2020, which also had repercussions in the

form of massive protests by the people of Hong Kong. It also evoked international

reactions wherein the USA, Canada, Britain, and the EU have imposed numerous

sanctions against China. But China, unmoved by all these developments, created the

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Thematic dossier – Perspectives on China’s international presence - December 2022, pp. 38-54

The impact of Chinese assertiveness on global order

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Greater Bay Area Project, which is again an ambitious project to connect Hong Kong with

the cities of Guangdong province in China. (Dezen Shira, 2019) It is going to enhance

the economic viability of Hong Kong, but at the same time it jeopardises hope for

democracy. After evaluating developments of the last few years, it can be concluded that

the future does not augur well for Hong Kong and the democratic aspirations of the people

are heading towards unnatural death.

Taiwan

For China, Taiwan is a separate province, while Taiwan claims to be an independent state,

and this is the reason behind the long-pending animosity between China and Taiwan.

China evolved the "One China Policy" and compelled the international community to stick

to this. In fact, China has established this principle to be an important part of its bilateral

relations with other countries. During the reign of the Trump administration, the USA has

supported Taiwan, and present President Biden has assured Taiwan that its commitment

to Taiwan’s security is rock solid. For a long time, the USA has adopted a strategically

ambiguous policy of supporting Taiwan and preventing a war with China. But with recent

Chinese intrusions into Taiwanese territory and in the wake of the Russia-Ukraine war,

the US has maintained a proactive approach towards safeguarding Taiwan’s security

against any possible Chinese aggression.

After the communist revolution in China in 1949, KMT leaders took control of Formosa

(present Taiwan, Republic of China) and ran the government from there. When PRC got

recognition from the world community, ROC’s place was taken over by PRC in various

international organisations like UNO and others. Their bilateral relations were marked by

tension and instability during those days, coupled with minor conflicts between the two

countries. Taiwan too remained under marshal rule from 1949-87, and after that,

democracy returned to the island. China and Taiwan have reached an understanding

known as the 1992 consensus regarding the conduction of bilateral relations. Both

countries agreed to the principle of "One China", although both have different

interpretations of that. Thus, they failed to stick to the content of this consensus, which

also lacked clarity on the legal status of Taiwan. As the DPP came into power in Taiwan

in 2016, it did not endorse the 1992 consensus reached between China and Taiwan.

(Maizland, 2022) Tsai, the President of Taiwan, during her opening presidential address

in 2016 stated that she was an elected President as per the provisions of the ROC’s

constitution and that would be the only source of conducting bilateral relations with

China. The statement was blatantly rejected by Beijing, and it severed the official ties

with Taiwan. (Maizland,2022) In the year 2019, President Xi reiterated Chinese policy for

Taiwan to be incorporated into mainland China under the system of "one country, two

systems", the same formula adopted for Hong Kong. Both the major parties in Taiwan,

the DPP and the KMT, rejected the proposal in the wake of the crackdown on Hong Kong‘s

freedom. (Maizland,2022)

In recent times, China has held naval exercises involving an aircraft carrier group near

Taiwan. Beijing has also sent aircraft into Taiwan's air defence identification zone on

numerous occasions. Taiwan spotted 38 Chinese aircraft entering its Air Defence Zone

on November 28th, 2021, creating tensions in the region. (Blanchard, 2021). Taiwan has

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The impact of Chinese assertiveness on global order

Bhawna Pokharna

accused China of militarily harassing it and warned of countermeasures to be taken if

Chinese aircraft move close to Taiwanese territories. This type of incidences is taking

place on the regular basis keeping the security of the region under much pressure.

The South China Sea

China is a major player in the South China Sea and, due to its size and location, it has

natural geostrategic advantages in the region. Powerful and fearless, China has been

actively engaged in consolidating its position in the South China Sea for a long time. The

Chinese display of hegemonic attitude creates uproar and a war-like situation in the

South China Sea, which is problematic for the region's countries. China claims more than

80% of the South China Sea, and this claim is based on a U-shaped nine-dash line etched

on a map. China has disputes with countries like the Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia,

Brunei, etc. in the South China Sea. A diplomatic clash between the Philippines and China

continued recently as the Chinese presence near the Manila claimed area in the South

China Sea. Philippine officials demanded the flotilla's withdrawal, although President of

the Philippines Duterte reiterated his desire to resolve the issue peacefully. Apparent by

the ICJ ruling of 2016, wherein China rejected the International Court’s decision, which

had given a verdict in favour of the Philippines in South China in a territorial dispute

between China and Philippines. (Ankit Panda, 2016)

India-China Stand-off

India and China also have a long history of animosity between their bilateral relations. A

recent India-China standoff took place in Ladakh in June 2020 on the Line of Actual

Control (LAC). The violent brawl of June 1st, 2020, killed 20 Indian soldiers and strained

bilateral relations vehemently. Such a violent incident took place after so many years.

The situation is still worrisome in Ladakh where China is repeatedly intruding into Indian

territory and reports of China's moving forward in Arunachal Pradesh, on the eastern

border of India, where new villages have been set up near the border, are affecting

bilateral relations.

Dispute with Japan over Senkaku Islands

China and Japan have a territorial dispute over Senkaku island, and they have had so

many clashes over this. Recently, China intruded into the waters off the Senkaku Islands

for 157 consecutive days (Davidson, 2021). The islands in the East China Sea are

presently controlled by Japan but claimed by China, and Chinese vessels intruded into

Japan’s "contiguous zone" almost daily in April 2021. The contiguous zone is usually used

to be the area beyond the territorial sea and which extends up to 24 nautical miles from

the baseline that a country claims. The presence of the Chinese vessels on the island is

an act of provocation. Japanese Defence Minister Nobuo Kishi asked for US, European

and world support to stop Chinese expansionism. He warned that "China is strengthening

its military power both in terms of quantity and quality, and rapidly improving its

operational capability." (Davidson, 2021).

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Thematic dossier – Perspectives on China’s international presence - December 2022, pp. 38-54

The impact of Chinese assertiveness on global order

Bhawna Pokharna

The China-US Rivalry

China-US differences are evident in the last few years, particularly in the aftermath of

China's resurgence in the 21st century as it became a political, economic, and military

power. China is posing a challenge to US supremacy in the international arena. During

the regime of the Trump administration, the trade war between two countries reached

its worst. The US-China trade war has taken the form of a cold war. The current Joe

Biden administration is committed to maintaining and strengthening the rules-based

international order. The US Secretary of State noted that China's actions in Xinjiang,

Hong Kong, and Taiwan have endangered the peace of the region and challenged global

stability. China's top diplomat, Yang Jiechi, criticised the US stand and reaffirmed Chinese

faith in international order based on UN principles and international law and disregarded

the dominance of the western world’s rules-based international order. (Nikki Asia, 2021).

Chinese Concept of International Order

The present world order was framed in the aftermath of World War II with the

establishment of United Nations embedding the spirit of Atlantic Charter of 1941. It

embraced the values of liberal democracy – the rule of law, individual freedom, religious

liberty, free enterprise, free trade, majority rule with minority rules combining the efforts

of Churchill et al. This world order has myriad synonyms such as Rules Based Democratic

Order, Liberal International Order and Free World Order etc. (Dowd, 2021). The system

is still prevailing but facing immense challenge with the rise of China in the 21st century.

With enormous economic power, military modernization, progress made in science and

technology, and subsequent development in all walks of life, China is heading towards

the path of becoming a superpower. The unique combination of communist

authoritarianism and economic liberalisation increased China's global presence

significantly, while making it difficult for international powers to deal with it. Its enormous

power, coupled with the aggressive postures of leaders, led it to follow its own course in

international relations. China is a member of the United Nations and a signatory of all

the important international conventions where it is supposed to obey and respect them.

But Chinese actions reflect its hegemonic attitude, which is guided by its deep-rooted

national interests, entrenched with Chinese nationalist sentiments to act in the global

order on its own terms. China wishes to establish new international relations based on

Chinese characteristics and rejects the western world led Liberal International Order.

China’s rise is the most important political and economic phenomenon of the twenty-first

century. It has consequences for "global security" (Toje 2018), for "global governance"

(Beeson and Li 2016; Economy 2018), for "human rights" (Gamso 2019), for

"international development" (Gallagher and Porzecanski 2010, Lin 2018) etc. While

China’s power in international trade is par excellence, it is also growing by other

measures of international power. (Grosse 2018) China’s growing clout in international

production and financial markets is evident in terms of its global manufacturing

leadership, stewardship in the assembling of electronics and textiles, and in financial

leadership through owning the world’s four largest banks. China is also growing in global

leadership through the development of new institutions such as the recently signed

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Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), Asian Infrastructure Investment

Bank (AIIB), and the landmark Belt and Road initiative (Soong 2018).

In the history of international politics, different scholars have had different opinions

regarding international order. It is construed as "international society", "a group of states

obeying a set of common rules" (Hedley Bull, 1977), "a systematised group of

international institutions" (Mearsheimer, 2019), that all world orders rest on a "set of

generally accepted rules" (Henry Kissinger, 2015: 1), and a U.S.-led "liberal" order with

an emphasis on "rules-based character". (Ikenberry, 2009). Andrew Moravcsik’s liberal

theory of international relations focuses on the social groups that shape government

officials’ orientations and incentives who decide a state’s "fundamental" foreign policy

preferences. (1997) Now the United States and China are competing to shape the

foundation of global system—the essential ideas, habits, and expectations that govern

international politics. It has given rise to a new competition, which, according to noted

scholar Michael Mazarr, "It is a competition based on narratives, norms, and legitimacy."

(2020).

China believes in the Westphalian conception of order with state sovereignty and non-

interference as the paramount principles, while undermining the liberal notions of

individual rights. This vision cannot be said as less "rules-based" than the United States’,

in so far as it has faith in the United Nations Charter. It also includes many current forms

of international cooperation, including extensive trade, investment, and collaboration on

vital transnational issues such as climate change. China is also a staunch supporter of

multilateralism, although its actual behaviour sometimes violates existing multilateral

norms. Nonetheless, the Chinese world order is significantly different from the order

where US influence prevailed (Walt, 2021). China also sticks to core interests of "national

unity," "reunification’ and "independence" (Swaine 2011).

During the Political Bureau study session of the Communist Party of China on global

governance, which was held on October 12th, 2015, Chinese President Xi Jinping declared

that the fundamental purpose of China’s participation in global governance is to serve

the accomplishment of the Chinese Dream of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese

nation. Xi said, "The rise of developing countries has brought revolutionary changes to

the world order. For centuries, powerful countries divided the world and competed for

profit and power through war and colonization, but that has been replaced in today's

world by rules and mechanisms to balance different interests," he said. (Xinhua, 2015,

October 14th) He also advocated democratic and law-based rules to guide global

governance so that the global governance system represents the will and interests of a

majority of countries in a more balanced manner. (Xinhua, 2015: October 14th)

The Chinese scholar Zhao Suisheng has argued, China is discontent with the current

international order because it is dominated by western values and norms. (2017) As a

result, China only believes in UN-based international order and advocates that "there is

only one system in the world, and that is the international system with the United Nations

at its center. "There is only one set of rules that are the basic norms of international

relations based on the purposes and principles of the UN Charter. There is only one order,

and that is the international order based on international law. " (Minghao, 2020).

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The impact of Chinese assertiveness on global order

Bhawna Pokharna

The ambiguity in Chinese words and actions is ostensible in Chinese behavior, which

many observers regard as an increasingly powerful China’s approach to the post–World

War II international order. What does China require to achieve its announced goal of

revitalization? What does China’s revitalization mean for the international order?

President Xi has initiated a grand vision for the PRC—the "China Dream"—which has

"Great Rejuvenation of the Chinese People" at its core and in which China would achieve

the desired goals of a moderately well-off society by 2021 on the occasion of the 100th

anniversary of the formation of the CCP and the status of a fully developed nation by

2049, which is the 100th anniversary of the founding of the PRC.

But the Chinese policies highlight the difference in preaching and practice. Major features

of Chinese Communist Party (CCP) rule include: rule by law rather than rule of law;

prioritisation of the state over the individual; disrespect for people's rights and freedom;

distrust of civil society and NGO’s activities; and unwillingness to tolerate individual

differences and identities. (Weiss and Wallace, 2021). China opposes liberal

internationalism associated with the "freedom agenda," promoting democratisation and

a global standard of human rights. As a result, the CCP's interests clash with the more

demanding principle of Liberal International Order. As regarding liberal institutionalism

and governance via principled multilateralism, China does not have a good record of

working within some institutions to advance its interests, like the IMF, the World Bank,

WTO, and UNSC, while flouting others, such as the rejection of the International Tribunal

for the Law of the Sea ruling on the South China Sea. (Weiss and Wallace, 2021).

An interesting study was done among the youth of various Asian countries to elicit their

opinion regarding China’s rise in the world. The survey concluded that the youth of Asian

countries believe that China's rise will definitely challenge the global order and that China

will not maintain peaceful relations with other Asian countries. It suggests that China has

not convinced the world about its peaceful rise. (Zhai, 2018).

The recent actions of China in Afghanistan and Iran suggest that it is now ready to accept

the tasks of a superpower. China wishes to challenge the USA in the present global order

on equal footing and behaving like a major player in the global arena.

China-Iran Agreement

China and Iran signed a 25-year deal in March 2021. (Figueroa, 2022) The deal was

proposed to be signed during Xi Jinping’s visit to Tehran in 2016, but the situation

prevailing at that time was not conducive to it. With the signing of the Iran nuclear deal

in 2015, sanctions were lifted against it by the western world, preventing China from

formally signing an agreement with Iran. The United States withdrew from the Iran

Nuclear Deal in the year 2018 on the pretext of Iran not following the nuclear deal

genuinely and imposed sanctions against Iran. That allowed Beijing to accelerate the

process of the China-Iran deal.

Iran has also joined the BRI project and it has myriad objectives for the same, such as

enhancing its development and IT infrastructure plan while becoming part of BRI.

First, it would improve Iran’s economic prospects.

Second, it would help to minimise its isolation in the international arena.

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Third, the project has the potential to give Iran an edge over its rival Saudi Arabia.

Fourthly, the deal also enhances scope for China-Iran military cooperation, and this could

be a potential area for growth.

Iran has welcomed BRI since its launch in 2013; the project was seen as an opportunity

to connect with the world market through an extensive and ambitious set of land and

maritime trade routes. The project gives Iran a prominent place in China's global plan in

the new international order. Central Asia has three access points to global markets: to

the east via China, to the south via Iran, and to the west via Russia. So, China-Iran

cooperation gives an impetus to the project. The first cargo rail from China reached Iran

via the Kazakhstan–Turkmenistan–Iran rail link in the year 2016, and that was construed

to be a milestone in the direction of accomplishing the targets of the BRI project (Reuters,

2016: February 16th).

China and Iran signed an agreement on military cooperation in the year 2014 and they

also signed a deal to jointly combat terrorism in 2016. The two countries also signed an

agreement to expand trade to dollar 600 billion over 10 years period which constitutes

an important part of 25 years agreement. Iran’s differences with USA brought it closer

to China and to develop strong ties with Russia and China. Iran and China have similar

views on the international order and US hegemony and both want to end US dominance

in the international arena.

Chinese Overtures in Afghanistan

The US withdrawal from Afghanistan and the subsequent control of power by the Taliban

gave an opportunity to China in a changed geo-strategic scenario. China endeavoured to

fill a void in Afghanistan. It became the first country to give recognition to the Taliban

regime, followed by a visit of Chinese leaders to Afghanistan. The Chinese foreign

ministry spokesman said, "China and the Afghan Taliban have unobstructed and effective

communication and discussion." (Wang Wenbin 2021). During the US presence in

Afghanistan, China was not an active player; rather, it observed qualms in the region.

But with the withdrawal of US forces, China is ready to assert itself in Afghanistan. (Zhou

Bo, 2021) China has also pledged to extend $31 million in aid to Afghanistan for food

and vaccines (BBC, 2021: September 9th).

Chinese Economic Interests in Afghanistan

Afghanistan is also rich in several other resources, such as uranium, coal, gold, oil, zinc,

gemstones, talc, iron ore, lead, sulphur, bauxite, rare earths, chromium, copper, natural

gas, travertine, gypsum, and marble. It also has the largest reserve of lithium, a much-

wanted natural resource by China which is used as the key ingredient of the large-

capacity lithium-ion batteries that are widely used in the renewable energy industry and

electric vehicles. China is also eyeing investing in infrastructure and industry projects in

Afghanistan. Moreover China also wishes to enhance its BRI Project to Afghanistan, from

Peshawar to Kabul, then to middle east would be very convenient for China to make its

reach in West Asian and European markets.

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Chinese Concern in Afghanistan

It is not that China is not aware of the threat of the possible spread of terrorist activities

in Xinjiang. To some extent, Xinjiang’s security and stability are the starting point for

China’s Afghanistan policy (Zhao Huasheng, 2021). Terrorists are present in Afghanistan

who are manoeuvring to establish an Islamic state in the Chinese province of Xinjiang, a

serious threat to China. Turkistan Islamic Movements has nexus with Al Qaeda, Tawhid

Wal-Jihad, and Jamaat al- Jamaat Ansarullah of Afghanistan, a very dangerous

preposition for China. Khorasan group of Islamic State, known as IS-K, has also

threatened to attack China.

Nevertheless, China is moving forward in Afghanistan with a renewed hope of

strengthening its geo strategic position. Afghanistan is considered a graveyard for

conquerors—Alexander the Great, the British Empire, the Soviet Union and now the

United States. But now China enters—armed not with bombs but with construction

blueprints, and a chance to prove the curse can be broken. (Zhou Bo, 2021)

Is it the Rise of a New Cold War?

Two big powers with different ideologies, belief systems, and conflicting interests will

lead to a path of cold war. The present international scenario suggests that a new cold

war is emerging with the rise of China in international affairs. Both the USA and China

are making new equations to keep the balance of power in their favour. The USA has

come up with the signing of AUKUS, the Build Back Better World Initiative and the

strengthening of QUAD, reaffirming once again the importance of multilateralism. With

China’s recent hypersonic missile testing, there is a fear of an increase in the arms race,

a phenomenon that was missing after the end of the cold war in 1990.

The USA, UK, and Australia signed a pact last year known as AUKUS, which would help

Australia acquire technology to deploy nuclear-powered submarines and sharing of

intelligence. This is construed to be a response to increasing Chinese militarization and

influence in the region, particularly in the strategically important South China Sea. The

alliance has also angered France, after Australia backed out of a $ 37 billion submarine

deal with Paris in favour of AUKUS. On the other hand, China has said the AUKUS plan

risks severely damaging regional peace and stability. Russia has also expressed its

unhappiness over the deal as it would undermine efforts in the direction of nuclear non-

proliferation. (Rozanna, 2021)

The Quad is a quadrilateral group of India, the USA, Japan, and Australia. The cardinal

objective of the Quad is to prepare the ground for an open, free, prosperous, and

inclusive Indo-Pacific region. The Quad also has another important objective to ensure

the strategic sea routes in the Indo-Pacific are free of any political or military influence.

The group ostensibly aims to curtail Chinese dominance. Thus, the core objective of the

Quad is to secure a rule-based global order, freedom of navigation, and a liberal trading

system. The coalition also aims to offer alternative financial support for nations in the

Indo-Pacific region and ensure a free supply chain for different goods.

The first virtual summit of QUAD took place in March 2021, and the first offline/physical

summit took place in September 2021 in the USA, where leaders of the partners took

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part in the meeting and reaffirmed their commitment to strengthen their ties in the wake

of the changing global scenario. They urged multilateral cooperation in all fields and

criticised terrorist proxies in South Asia. A recent summit meeting of QUAD countries was

held in Japan in May 2022, wherein member countries discussed issues pertaining to

global order in the wake of the Russia-Ukraine conflict and Chinese dominance. They

expressed their commitment to augment cooperation to face the challenges of emerging

trends of global order

Conclusion

China’s rise in the international arena has changed the geo-strategic equations and posed

a challenge to the existing liberal international order. A typical communist regime with a

flourishing market-oriented economy, China has a dismal human rights record and a

dislike for political rights and freedom of the people. China is ready to take on the role of

a superpower owing to its military, technological, political, and economic power and

capabilities. It is striving hard to surpass the USA to become the world’s largest economy

in the near future. The gargantuan Belt and Road initiative is all set to enhance Chinese

presence and influence across the globe and poses a challenge to US dominance. It

possesses the military-technological-industrial assets to thwart the values of the Liberal

International Order. The pandemic era has witnessed the peculiar aggressive features in

Chinese foreign policy known as "wolf warrior diplomacy" in its interactions with

neighbours and other countries. Xi’s statement "We make no promise to abandon the

use of force" while dealing with Taiwan and Hong Kong suggests an autocratic

characteristic of Chinese leadership. The US withdrawal from Afghanistan and the Iran

Nuclear Agreement (JCPA) has given an opportunity to China to fill the void and establish

its foothold in these countries. Chinese assertiveness in the global arena suggests the

beginning of a new cold war with US-China rivalry dominating the present order. Both

the power blocs are now manoeuvring hard to strengthen their positions. To gain an

advantage over its rival, China is relying on BRI, economic power, military modernization,

hypersonic missile advancement, and space research; whereas the United States is

relying on QUAD, Build Back Better World, AUKUS, and NATO etc.

An increase in Chinese power has allowed it to strive to establish an international order

based on UN principles, but looking at Chinese behaviour since the communist revolution

in 1949, it seems these principles are meant for preaching and not for practice. Being a

communist country, China’s rise in international relations does not augur well for

democratic values and principles as its policies undermines individual liberty and rights.

The world cannot forget the gruesome suppression of democracy and individual freedom

at Tiananmen Square in June 1989. China at the helm of the New International Order

will imply propagating the ideologies of China Dream, National Unification, and Socialist

Modernisation with Chinese Characteristics, which would promote Chinese nationalism

while jeopardising the spirit of the existing Liberal International Order.

The world should stand for the rule-based international order with respect for democratic

values and the rights and freedoms of the people. Only such a system can ensure global

peace and security.

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