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Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 13, Nº. 1 (May-October 2022)

PORTUGUESE SCIENCE DIPLOMACY AND THE NETWORKS OF PORTUGUESE

PROFESSIONALS, RESEARCHERS AND GRADUATE STUDENTS ABROAD: FROM

THE ESCAPE TO THE CIRCULATION OF BRAINS

JOÃO MOURATO PINTO

jmouratopinto@gmail.com

Graduate and master in International Relations-European Studies by Coimbra University and

Sciences Po Bordeaux. Professor of diplomacy and phD student at Minho University (Portugal), he

has been studying the global action of the European Union, particularly in relation to Brazil and

South America. A collaborating member of the Centre for Research in Political Science at that

university, he has worked at the European Research Council (European Commission) and was the

President of the Erasmus Student Network in 2017-2019, where he worked to improve the

accessibility and quality of academic exchanges in higher education globally. His main research

interests are the European Union's External Action, Brazilian foreign policy, South American

regionalism, and diplomacy.

Abstract

Science diplomacy is a field born of the interaction between science and diplomacy. It arises

in a context of extension of multilateralism to new actors, including scientists, higher

education institutions, laboratories, companies, and cities. The Resolution of the Councils of

Ministers No. 78/2016 is the legal matrix of Portuguese science diplomacy, presenting it as

one of several pillars for the internationalization of science and technology in the country.

Among various actors identified by this resolution, the "Networks constituted by Portuguese

Professionals, Researchers and Graduate Students working abroad" have a high potential,

especially considering the synergies they can create with embassies, through science advisors,

higher education institutions and Portuguese cities. After a contextualization of science

diplomacy as a discipline and European and national practice, this paper contributes to this

debate through an exploratory reflection on the role of those networks in the

operationalization of Portuguese science diplomacy.

Keywords

Science diplomacy; European Union; Portugal; emigration; higher education.

How to cite this article

Pinto, João Mourato (2022). Portuguese science diplomacy and the networks of Portuguese

professionals, researchers and graduate students abroad: from the escape to the circulation

of brains. In Janus.net, e-journal of international relations. Vol13, Nº. 1, May-October 2022.

Consulted [online] on the date of the last visit, https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.13.1.7

Article received on May 3, 2021 and accepted for publication on March 3, 2022

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 13, Nº. 1 (May-October 2022), pp. 98-116

Portuguese science diplomacy and the networks of Portuguese professionals, researchers and graduate

students abroad: from the escape to the circulation of brains

João Mourato Pinto

PORTUGUESE SCIENCE DIPLOMACY AND THE NETWORKS OF

PORTUGUESE PROFESSIONALS, RESEARCHERS

AND GRADUATE STUDENTS ABROAD:

FROM THE ESCAPE TO THE CIRCULATION OF BRAINS

JOAO MOURATO PINTO

Introduction

The notion of "science diplomacy" refers to a set of practices that cross the sectors of

research, higher education, science, technology, and innovation, with the area of

international relations, identifying points of common interest and instigating their

collaboration in shared challenges. Its wide-ranging nature has resulted, on the one

hand, into some conceptual confusion and, on the other, in constant innovation in its

application.

This conceptual and pragmatic expansion has led some organizations to reflect on their

contribution to science diplomacy. Among these, are the "networks consisting of

portuguese professionals, researchers and graduate students abroad", which began to

emerge over a decade ago spontaneously by Portuguese emigrants. The Resolution of

the Council of Ministers No. 78/2016, which serves as a legal framework for science

diplomacy in Portugal, assigns them a role of "interlocutor" between the Government and

Portuguese embassies and emigrated researchers. This role of dialogue is an innovation

that other countries have also sought to exploit and which, with the right strategy, can

become a cornerstone of the future exercise of science diplomacy.

This work is part of a briefing paper written for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MNE) and

the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education (MCTES), and discusses the

role these networks can play in the broader context of Portuguese science diplomacy. It

looks at its potential to bring together graduate emigrants, especially those working in

the scientific field, to contribute to replacing the term "brain drain" with "brain

circulation". Also, it claims that networking and abroad, either temporarily or

permanently, is an intrinsic condition for the scientific profession, affecting especially the

most peripheral and resourceless countries. It is reasoned that such networks can serve

as points of contact between the community and homeland, helping to integrate them

into the new environment, while keeping them informed about and promoting their

involvement in science made by the Portuguese, in Portugal and the rest of the world.

This horizontal (between pairs) and vertical (with the country) interaction allows both

Translated by Hugo Alves.

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diplomacy and Portuguese science to include in their action the contribution of national

scientists abroad, either through the knowledge obtained, or through the networks they

are part of.

The study begins by highlighting the main aspects of the debate on the definition of

science diplomacy, including its relationship with the so-called brain drain, then visits its

implementation by the European Union (EU). This outline is followed by a more detailed

examination of the Portuguese case, particularly to the dynamics most relevant to the

networks concerned. Its role – present and potential – is articulated with that of science

advisors, Higher Education Institutions (IES) and cities, seeking to follow multiple angles

in the life of a researcher. Finally, ideas for the future are presented to contribute to the

academic and practical debate around the role of science diplomacy in diplomacy and

science. Foreign examples are introduced as illustrations of the arguments.

1. Science as a branch of diplomacy (and vice versa)

Science diplomacy is a relatively new, but rapidly evolving topic. It is part of a framework

for the change of multilateralism, today also characterized by a progressive extension of

diplomatic practices to other sectors of society. These new practices do not replace

traditional diplomacy, which remains one of the most important foreign policy

instruments of countries, particularly in the relations between States. Nevertheless, they

are part of a gradual evolution of diplomacy, where national and international issues are

intertwined in the era of globalization and where their use is not exclusive to

governments.

Among the new expressions of diplomacy, science diplomacy is particularly

comprehensive. Roughly speaking, it is defined as a "link of practices" (Mendonça, 2016)

or a "diffuse interaction" (Aranda, 2019) between the foreign affairs of a State, which

are generally coordinated by the ministries of foreign affairs, and its scientific and

technological policy, which is managed by the ministries of science. It is about

"developing the national environment of research and entrepreneurship while

[projecting] in the international arena the strategic interests of the community of

reference actors" (Mendonça, 2016). The intersection of two such wide-ranging fields

generates a myriad of different approaches and angles assumed by science diplomacy in

each State. As such, there is still no complete definition of the concept, or a single model

that can be easily replicated (Aranda, 2019).

One of the most consensual definitions was created by the Royal Society (United

Kingdom) and the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) in 2010,

in their "New Frontiers in Science Diplomacy". It is based on three pillars: diplomacy for

science, when diplomacy facilitates the conception of scientific partnerships; science for

diplomacy, when science enables the growth of diplomatic relations; and science in

diplomacy, when foreign policy objectives are informed by scientific advice. Since then,

these terms combined have been used by various institutions as a shared understanding

of an activity still under development. More recently, the EL-CSID

project, funded by

Horizon 2020, proposed a fourth pillar called diplomacy in science, to incorporate

European Leadership in Cultural, Science and Innovation Diplomacy - el-csid.eu.

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diplomatic practices in science. According to EL-CSID, it may be easier to repair the

fragmentation of society, combat skepticism about science and increase its impact on

social debates and professionalize the dialogue between scientists and policy makers

(Van Langenhove, 2021).

To achieve these goals, science diplomacy makes use of various tactical and operational

tools. At the strategic level, joint declarations are issued between States, regions or

institutions, and the seat in international organizations is used to highlight the importance

of a given scientific agenda. The operative level is based on international collaboration

agreements, such as CERN

or SESAME

. The latter brings together scientists from

various Middle Eastern States, including some without diplomatic relations with each

other, creating an environment conductive to the success of "science for diplomacy". The

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is another major example (Van

Langenhove, 2016), as it gathers a multidisciplinary group of scientists and diplomats

responsible for monitoring the Paris Agreement on climate change, thus being an

illustration of "science in diplomacy". Other working tools include advisory councils on

science and technology, allocation of science advisors to embassies, inclusion of foreign

scientists in national science and technology funding schemes, academic exchange

programs, international scientific collaboration programs, among others.

The implementation of science diplomacy should also include campaigns promoting its

results and dedicated training programmes, these being perhaps the least worked fields

(Van Langenhove, 2016). The lack of a career of science diplomacy hinders the creation

of a formative offer since the subject tends to reside mainly in oral discourse as a

reference to practices that combine science and diplomacy. Added to this difficulty, is the

fact that some scientists do not consider that part of their work can be labelled as a type

of diplomacy. Consequently, not all science professionals are trained to acquire the skills

necessary for diplomatic practice and not all diplomats know science (as an abstract field)

with the necessary depth. Issues such as these have increased criticism around the lack

of mechanisms for assessing the effectiveness of science diplomacy (Flink, 2021).

The application of these tools requires the joint work of highly qualified human resources

in various sectors. The S4D4C

project identified five groups of actors relevant to science

diplomacy: the government sector (including subnational governments and public

agencies); the intergovernmental sector and supranational organizations; the private

sector (from start-ups to multinationals), universities and scientific research sector

(including national academies, research councils or prominent individuals); and the civil

society sector (Elorza et al., 2021). One of the main difficulties of science diplomacy is

the complex coordination of so many actors. According to the conclusions of S4D4C,

there is a direct relationship between the level of effectiveness of this coordination and

the scope of a State's science diplomacy.

The mandatory inclusion of political and diplomatic actors is one of the main

characteristics that distinguishes science diplomacy from international scientific

collaboration in general. Science diplomacy is a weighted result between science and

political priorities, a coexistence that is not always harmonious, as "science represents

European Organization for Nuclear Research.

Synchrotron-Light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East.

Using Science for/in Diplomacy for addressing global Challenges "s4d4c.eu.

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‘objectivity’ and ‘truth’, [and] diplomacy represents ‘interest’ and ‘commitment’"

(Mendonça, 2016). Some scientists fear that science may be instrumentalized by the

realpolitik, especially considering science diplomacy is primarily a branch of diplomacy

and, therefore, may be subject to logics potentially adverse to science (Muller, 2021).

Countries such as the United Kingdom (UK) and China, and even the EU through Horizon

2020-funded projects, have increased their investment in science, aiming to expand their

soft power, i.e., their ability to attract and influence international relations. Although the

narrative around science diplomacy is mostly positive, emphasizing words like

"cooperation" and "universality", the practice shows that this will not always be the case

and that there is always another side of the coin. Today, science diplomacy also reflects

logics of national interests and power dynamics, a trend accelerated by the COVID-19

pandemic (Fägersten, 2021).

Effective science diplomacy can have yet another perverse effect. By attracting to a given

country the best global talents, it can contribute for both the enrichment of a State and

the impoverishment of others. These movements tend to agglutinate in major scientific

and technological centers worldwide, feeding a vicious circle of perpetuation of the

imbalances that are at the origin of this same emigration. Science diplomacy can

contribute to the perpetuation of migratory dynamics between centers and peripheries.

On the other hand, through the implementation of networks of professionals and

researchers abroad, science diplomacy also offers States the possibility to stay connected

to their brains "on the run", and these can contribute to the development of their country

from a distance. Due to the hybrid nature of cooperation and competition of science,

permanent or temporary emigration is intrinsic to the scientific profession. Through its

tools, science diplomacy offers solutions to the breaking of the vicious circle, contributing

to the expression "brain drain" replacement by "brain circulation", that is, the notion that

researchers – national and foreign – have phases of their careers inside and outside the

country and that both situations can add value to national science. This motion

contributes to a country's science diplomacy gaining and distributing influence in

decision-making processes in international organizations. By promoting the link to the

home country, such networks can play an important role in correcting imbalances,

helping to ensure that science diplomacy is not a zero-sum game.

To accelerate the advancement of the implementation of science diplomacy strategies in

the world, in its final report, EL-CSID proposes a set of recommendations (EL-CSID,

2019). Firstly, it points to the need for greater theorization on the subject, especially in

connection with the theories of International Relations, and based on case studies on

successes and failures of science diplomacy. Secondly, the exchange of good practices

should be fostered, especially between scientists and other professionals, as well as

communication between them and policy makers. Thirdly, the investigation states that

scientists should be more attentive to the consequences of their work in international

relations, working on networks with an impact on science diplomacy. Finally, it is

recommended that policy makers monitor this activity, incorporating it into their work

and rejecting political blockages to the advancement of science.

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2. Science diplomacy of the European Union

In June 2015, Carlos Moedas, then European Commissioner for Research, Science, and

Innovation, in a speech addressed to the European Institute in Washington DC, said that

"science diplomacy presents an unparalleled opportunity to address today’s political,

demographic and environmental challenges through language and the universal

expression of scientific endeavor" (Moedas, 2015). The following year, the EU Global

Strategy, the guiding document for European external action, indicated science

diplomacy to resolve conflicts. Since then, EU has outlined six general objectives for its

science diplomacy: to establish a free environment for scientists; to agree on the

principles of scientific cooperation; to promote the capacity of cultural and science

diplomacy in the context of its external action; to connect other foreign policy strategies

to science diplomacy; to increase cohesion between member States; and to understand

the role of actors in science diplomacy, some of which may be more strategic if left

independent (Fägersten, 2021).

In this sense, EU has been including science diplomacy in some of its programmes and

instruments. This is visible in the work of institutions like the European Research Council

(ERC) or the Joint Research Centre (JRC) and in programmes such as Horizon 2020, the

Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions, or Erasmus+, which – including its Jean Monnet actions

– receives direct funding from the European External Action Service (EEAS), to extend

the role of the education sector in European external action. More recently, EU has

integrated alumni from these and other programmes into its diplomatic strategy to create

networks of alumni "ambassadors" of the European cause (Ferreira-Pereira and Mourato

Pinto, 2021). The Euraxess network, which consists of more than 600 information points

in 42 European countries with several links to other parts of the world, is another central

tool in the European strategy for the area.

Horizon 2020 has provided the creation of the EU science diplomacy cluster (science-

diplomacy.eu), which consists of three sibling projects: EL-CSID (finished in 2019);

S4D4C (completed in 2021), which has created a free virtual course open to the public;

and InsSciDE

(ending in 2022). In 2019, the communities boosted by these projects

launched the "Madrid Declaration on Science diplomacy", with the aim of fostering the

conduct of science-informed external policies, increasing the productivity of international

relations, and expanding the capacity to face global challenges. The Madrid Declaration

argues that science diplomacy must have citizens at the heart of its action and must be

able to show results frequently. This community has been very active in creating

proposals for EU science diplomacy, calling for the EU to encourage the training of its

member States, foster the creation of a European community of professionals in this field

and make a stronger link between science and tackling against global challenges

(Melchor, Elorza, Lacunza, 2021). In 2021, this cluster was transformed into the EU

Science Diplomacy Alliance, which offers training and advice opportunities, to form a

European community of science diplomacy. It is a challenging task, considering that the

field will be fractured in thematic areas, such as energy, water, health, and others. The

Inventing a shared Science Diplomacy for Europe - insscide.eu.

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focus should be the creation of spaces for the exchange of ideas and the provision of

training opportunities (Hartl, 2021).

The EU action is also based on a network of thirteen scientific advisers distributed around

the world and coordinated from Brussels by the Strategic Forum for International

Cooperation in Science and Technology (SFIC), a collaboration between the EEAS and

the Directorate-General for Research and Innovation of the European Commission

(Council of the EU, 2016). They are allocated to countries of strategic interest to the EU

the most recent being created in 2020 in the UK, following Brexit

. The advisers promote

EU research programmes to increase their international profile and foster collaboration

between member States' advisers by organizing monthly meetings (Ruffini, 2021a). As

for SFIC, it is equipped with a team specializing in science diplomacy, which launched in

September 2020 the working paper "Anchoring Science Diplomacy in Horizon Europe –

Developing Specific Subjects and Activities". This document stresses the need for greater

connection between Horizon Europe and the European strategy for science diplomacy,

with the desire to create greater synergies between different policies, as reflected in the

2016 EU Global Strategy. The Horizon Europe Strategic Plan 2021-24 dedicates a chapter

to international cooperation, highlighting the role of science diplomacy.

These initiatives are also an EU contribution to the reform of multilateralism. They aim

to make it more inclusive through the participation of non-state actors and disengaged

from national logic (Muller, 2021), and to strengthen the mechanisms for solving

transnational challenges, including global commons, such as climate change (Van

Langenhove, 2016). The Union wants science diplomacy to increase its soft power and

the capacity for action as an international actor. Overall, science diplomacy serves to

renew the EU's image by adding the idea of an environmentally sustainable continent

based on a development model based on science and technology, to the original peace

project (Muller, 2021).

3. Portuguese science diplomacy

Portuguese science diplomacy was defined by the Council of Ministers Resolution No.

78/2016 and stated that "it must be understood as the coherent and systematic use of

resources and initiatives in the areas of science and technology, in the framework of

Portugal's European and foreign policy, to pursue the purposes of this policy and, namely,

the promotion of the national image and interests, opportunities for knowledge,

communication and reciprocal collaboration between the country and other States,

people's contacts and public diplomacy". Although this definition has a one-way

understanding, looking mainly at the contribution that science brings to Portuguese

diplomacy, the whole resolution presents several actions aiming to internationalize

Portuguese science through greater interaction with the country's foreign policy. To

create a "policy of internationalization of higher education and science and technology",

this internationalization enhances scientific and technological research in Portugal,

contributes to cooperation with third countries and is a vehicle for "support to consortia

Canada (open 1977), United States of America (1980), Australia (1988), China (1991), Russia (2000), India

(2001), Saudi Arabia (2002), Japan (2002), Brazil (2008), Ethiopia (2013), Korea (2014) and Egypt (n.d.).

No information on the nationality of the/a counselor/a.

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and strategic partnerships that affirm the country and its natives in Europe and the world,

and attracts qualified human resources". A greater relationship with faculties and

scientific communities abroad is also an intention.

This set of objectives will give science diplomacy a multidisciplinarity that is difficult to

implement. In this sense, a close collaboration has been created between MNE and

MCTES and some competencies are delegated to Secretariats of State of the Portuguese

Communities, Internationalization and Science, Technology and Higher Education. The

coordination of implementation on the ground is largely in charge of the Foundation for

Science and Technology (FCT), the National Agency for Scientific and Technological

Culture (Living Science), the National Innovation Agency (ANI) and the Agency for

Investment and Foreign Trade of Portugal (AICEP). The Portuguese diplomatic corps

monitors the development of the theme in the respective countries, organizing events

for scientific dissemination and stimulating local communities of Portuguese scientists.

There is also the role played by the "networks of Portuguese professionals, researchers

and graduate students working abroad", described in the next segments.

3.1. Networks of Portuguese Professionals, Researchers and Graduate

Students working abroad

According to Eurostat (2019), while 10.8% of the Portuguese live in other EU member

States, only 1.1% of Spaniards do so. Despite the socio-economic reasons that often

motivate emigration, the Portuguese diaspora, including lusodescendants, is one of

Portugal's main assets abroad. To encourage their (re-)approach to the country, the

resolution aims to promote the creation of "Networks made up of Portuguese

Professionals, Researchers and Graduate Students working abroad", acting as "priority

interlocutors of the central services of MNE and MCTES, as well as the diplomatic and

consular network, with a view to representing and promoting Portugal’s interests and

image in those countries" (Presidency of the Council of Ministers, 2016). The

dynamization of this "academic and scientific associativism" is under responsibility of the

Secretariat of State for the Portuguese Communities, and it is FCT’s concern to stimulate

the relationship with the Portuguese scientific diaspora, attracting it to employment at

homeland. There are currently seven associations: AGRAFr (France), AGRAPS

(Switzerland), APEI Benelux (Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg), ASPPA

(Germany), PAPS (United States of America and Canada), PARSUK (United Kingdom),

Nordic SPOT (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden). They arise from the

capacity of self-organization of the Portuguese community, some of which precede in

several years the publication of Resolution No. 78/2016. Although without homogeneity,

its work is done in coordination with Portuguese embassies. There is also a still meager

involvement with the respective councilors of communities; FCT has formal cooperation

protocols established with some, and the objective is to extend them to all. The protocol

with PARSUK has resulted in the creation of a scientific council formed by the Portuguese

scientific diaspora in the UK.

The events organized by these associations, which are not limited to science diplomacy,

include the promotion of Portuguese IES among their communities, organization of

scientific debates in formal and informal contexts, online and offline, dissemination of the

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activities of Portuguese communities beyond the scientific world, etc. For example,

PARSUK and FCT collaborate in the organization of an annual competition to support

scientific mobility between Portugal and the UK, called the Bilateral Research Fund, which

obtains hundreds of applications for an overall funding of €15,000. APEI Benelux, on the

other hand, develops an annual activity to disseminate Portuguese IES to Portuguese

secondary school students at the European School in Brussels, attracting them to the

Portuguese higher education. Once a year, all organizations collaborate in the

organization of GraPE – Forum of Portuguese graduates abroad, looking to promote

discussion among professionals residing in the country and abroad. In its ninth edition,

the event attracted several public and private institutions, including two ministers and a

former European Commissioner; it is likely to become a showcase of research carried out

by Portuguese around the world.

Born from associativism, these networks have the potential to give Portuguese

researchers abroad greater ownership over Portuguese science diplomacy in their host

country, contributing to the term "brain drain" being replaced by "brain circulation". For

this to happen, Portuguese institutions must be aware of both the potential and

limitations of associativism, integrating it appropriately into Portuguese science

diplomacy. Voluntary work cannot replace the professional and should be subject of

appropriate recognition and appreciation by the responsible entities. Plus, the acquisition

of a global scale is dependent on centralized coordination, which must identify synergies

between these networks and embassies, through science advisors, IES and Portuguese

cities.

3.2. The Science Advisor

Council of Ministers Resolution No 78/2016 introduced the figure of the "Science Advisor",

trying to centralize information on a single professional, responsible for "promoting

scientific employment" (Presidency of the Council of Ministers, 2016). After the

appointment of FCT and under the responsibility of main embassies, science advisors

may be an addition to economic advisors, forming a team with great potential for

attracting investment and knowledge to Portugal.

International examples: the various forms of the science advisor

Germany organizes international years of science to give visibility to bilateral

scientific relations with a theme country for a year. Switzerland has Swiss outreach

homes abroad, which are its own institutes based with major global scientific and

technological hubs such as Silicon Valley, New York, or Shanghai. Denmark has

appointed a representative for Silicon Valley-accredited technology and Austria has

created the Office of Science and Technology in Washington DC. Spain has set up

a network of science diplomacy in Madrid that builds on the dynamic of contact

between the officials of embassies accredited in the city. Through this network, it

disseminates its information and obtains some from other countries. France has the

Agence Nationale de la Recherche, which compiles and disseminates information

through its network of science advisors placed in its embassies. This information is

of interest to French public authorities, private companies, research laboratories,

and all those linked to investment in science. The UK created the Science and

Innovation Network, mobilizing around 100 professionals to work on eleven

thematic programmes located in forty countries.

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While graduate associations may play the role of boosting their peers, their work is

limited by their volunteering status, and they cannot implement government strategies.

Through their set of skills, science advisors will be able to play this role by supporting

FCT, embassies and networks in the local implementation of science diplomacy. Despite

their potential, and although there are professionals seconded to perform some of these

tasks, Portugal did not name any science advisor.

3.3. Higher Education Institutions

IES are one of the fundamental axes of science diplomacy, whether for their central role

in higher education, research, innovation, business liaisons, or the promotion they

provide to the cities that host them. They have the unique ability to bridge science and

technology with education and youth. These characteristics make universities active and

passive actors of diplomatic action; sometimes they speak of about "higher education

diplomacy" (Ferreira-Pereira and Mourato Pinto, 2021; Ruffini, 2021b).

However, analyzing articles on the role of IES in science diplomacy, many of these have

chosen to remain on the sidelines, possibly for reasons of political independence and

universality of knowledge, leaving the emphasis on researchers and student flows. The

most recent debates have focused on models of independent involvement of IES in

science diplomacy. From a national perspective, these include policies attracting foreign

students, training professionals in science diplomacy, managing alumni networks, and

using European funds to increase their influence and contribute to national soft power.

From a more global perspective, they can contribute to greater academic knowledge

about science diplomacy, form frameworks for international organizations, promote the

adoption of multidisciplinary approaches in diplomatic issues, or be vehicles of

international cooperation through networks of universities (Ruffini, 2021b).

The internationalization of Portuguese IES has grown in Portugal in the last decade and

has resulted in a positive balance in the international flow of higher education students;

there are more foreign students in Portugal than the other way around. Almost half of

them come from Lusophony, which is explained by cultural ties and academic cooperation

agreements between IES and governments of Portuguese-speaking countries. The

UNESCO Science LP (Portuguese Language) Center has been important in this context

through the offer of training and doctoral scholarships to students from Portuguese-

speaking African Countries (PALOP). On the other hand, almost half of Portuguese

students abroad are distributed across the UK, France, and Spain (UNESCO, 2019).

FCT plays a central role in this area by training and financing national IES and creating

partnerships with foreign entities. Among several examples, stands out the initiative

GoPortugal – Global Science and Technology Partnerships

, that promotes collaboration

between Portugal and foreign higher education institutes of international reputation. In

2017 there were almost 55,000 researchers in the country, of which 4,647 (8.4%) were

foreigners. Brazil continues to emerge as the main country of origin (27.1%), while

PALOP countries have a lower representation, not reaching 6%. European countries are

http://www.fct.pt/apoios/cooptrans/goportugal.phtml.en.

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the main source of the income, manly Spain (14.8%), Italy (9%) and Germany (4.1%)

(DGEEC, 2019).

The growth potential of the European public is particularly important, especially in view

of the EU's plans for the sector through the allocation of €95.5 billion to Horizon Europe

in the period 2021-2027. Portugal has gradually increased its capacity to raise and

execute these funds, having been a net recipient of Horizon 2020 (PERIN, 2022: 3).

Portugal network in Europe Research and Innovation Network (PERIN), launched in early

2021, sets out the objective of "attracting around €2 billion of EU funding in the areas of

Research and Innovation" (PERIN, 2022: 2) over the duration of Horizon Europe. For

that, it will be necessary to mobilize the country's scientific community, while looking at

the opportunities created by the European Research and Education Areas and "European

Universities". Also important are regionalized initiatives, such as the IACOBUS Program,

signed in 2014 between IES of Northern Portugal and Galicia, Spain, to exchange

employees, including scientists. In seven editions, the program has funded more than

1,000 research projects in the Galicia-North of Portugal Euro region (CCDR-N, 2021).

The investment and attention paid to the internationalization of Portuguese science may

result in an increasing number of researchers in the country, whether domestic or foreign.

Inherently to their profession, it is expected that they emigrate on a temporary or

permanent basis, to integrate other teams and projects. Currently, IES develop their

strategies of involvement of their alumni in isolation, providing them with information

and offers. However, this model faces difficulties, as research is based on several

institutions, laboratories, companies, etc.; the alma mater is only a chapter in the career

of a researcher and graduate. Both the "brain circulation" effect and the impact of

investments can be multiplied through an international monitoring strategy of national

alumni, framed by the strategy for science diplomacy, which include Portuguese and

foreign graduates from national universities. Due to their insertion in scientific

associativism and their horizontal structure, the networks can be the cornerstones of this

strategy.

Soon, IES will also be challenged to look at their school and formative offer in the context

of science diplomacy. A study of the S4D4C project (Melchor, Elorza, Lacunza, 2021)

recommends the creation of mixed training programs for scientists and diplomats,

equipping them with the skills needed for this field. The curriculum of these programmes

should follow national priorities, but their implementation should include as many face-

to-face sessions, as distance ones, to include emigrated Portuguese scientists more

easily.

International examples: training programs in science diplomacy

The University of Warsaw has an academy for science diplomacy and Barcelona's

SciTech DiploHub offers training on the subject. Zurich's ETH works closely with Swiss

science advisors, creating a direct link between national science diplomacy and

students. The American Academy for the Progress of Science (AAAS) and The World

Academy of Sciences (TWAS) offer in Trieste, Switzerland, a training program for

trainers in science diplomacy. The Institute of International Relations of the University

of São Paulo, Brazil, organizes every year the São Paulo School of Advanced Science

in Science diplomacy and Innovation Diplomacy, which consists of five days of

intensive training.

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3.4. Cities

Cities are fundamental elements of science diplomacy; they centralize the triangle formed

by science, companies, and industry. Together, they form poles of attraction for highly

qualified professionals, including foreigners and emigrated Portuguese scientists. The

country has several poles, like TagusPark (Oeiras), the Atlantic International Research

Centre (Angra do Heroísmo), or the Braga-Guimarães axis, which includes the Iberian

International Laboratory of Nanotechnology. Cities such as Covilhã, Coimbra or Évora,

where the weight of students is disproportionate, but also Porto, Lisbon, or Aveiro, are

very important for national science diplomacy. In all these examples stands out the

partnership between municipalities, IES and local companies, favorable to for the setting

of highly qualified human resources. Science diplomacy can serve to strengthen this

relationship by contributing to talents fixation and attracting foreign direct investment,

including in internationally little-known regions. For this reason, the Secretary of State

for the Valorization of the Interior is involved in this dynamic.

International examples: Barcelona SciTech DiploHub

The Barcelona case is paradigmatic, because it is an example of "paradiplomacy", that

is, international relations led by a government other than the national (Cornago,

2018). Under the municipality's coordination, "SciTech DiploHub" consortium was

formed, which includes several local higher education institutions, companies,

laboratories, and other entities relevant to the "first city to implement a strategy of

scientific and technological diplomacy". It also intends to map and boost a community

of "Barcelona alumni", which constitutes a "global network of scientists, technology

experts, and leaders in innovation formed (...) in the knowledge ecosystem of the city

and those currently residing abroad." Members of this network are considered

ambassadors of the city and are connected through a virtual platform. A monthly

newsletter keeps them informed about professional local offers and they are given a

professional advice program. Finally, "Barcelona Alumni" are encouraged to share

their stories, and personal affinities are fostered at exclusive events, like the

"Barcelona Alumni Glo bal Summit" and the "Barcelona Innovation Days", which are

decentralized to other worldwide cities, such as Boston, USA, or London, UK (SciTech

DiploHub, 2021). In the case of Barcelona, the involvement of the municipality is a

key factor for the success of the platform.

In a context of permanent circulation of qualified professionals, both cities and IES are

simultaneously points of origin and arrival. This dual condition makes the follow-up of

the careers of these professionals a difficult task, where Portugal has already taken

important steps. One of the main examples is the Global Portuguese Network (GPS),

created in 2016 because of a partnership between Aveiro University, Viva Science

Agency, Francisco Manuel dos Santos Foundation, Altice company and Portuguese

networks abroad. Quickly, there were more than 4.300 people on the platform in 126

different countries, who benefited from a newsletter, a search engine that finds

Portuguese colleagues all over the world, and the possibility of participating in an

exclusive annual event. Users can enter information about their professional

achievements and share opportunities and opinions. The associations of graduates have

reserved spaces in the platform, from which they can disclose important information only

to Portuguese residents in their countries. The GPS platform currently has partnerships

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with television channels, newspapers and podcasts, and members are invited to speak

publicly on the most varied topics. However, despite its success, the growth of the

platform has been slower in recent years. While from the user's point of view the platform

is at the state-of-the-art level, after the first years of mapping the Portuguese scientific

diaspora, there is a need to draw up an equally ambitious plan for potentializing this

information, particularly in the context of science diplomacy.

International examples: THE EU Alumni

To achieve objectives like those of the GPS Platform, the EU is conducting the EU

Alumni Engagement Initiative pilot project. It is funded by the European External

Action Service and aims to form a community of alumni based on peer relationships.

The community is locally energized by the Erasmus alumni networks and Marie Curie

actions and by EU delegations. The goal is to create channels through which EU can

share information and make contributions to local strategies. Communication is done

through a newsletter and online and offline events. In addition, EU invites alumni of

academic exchange programmes to represent it both at its Study in Europe events

and at major international higher education fairs (NAFSA, EAIE, etc.). While EU

professionals are dedicated to building partnerships with other organizations and third

countries, alumni share their personal history in these events to attract them to

European programmes.

4. Ideas for the future

Portuguese science diplomacy is still taking its first steps and as there is neither a

complete definition, nor a single model for its implementation; the options for the future

are many. This list presents some ideas, for the operationalization of Portuguese science

diplomacy.

I - National strategy for science diplomacy: the potential for greater

coordination and more synergy

After the publication of the legislation in 2016 and the first years of experimentation, the

current moment may be ideal for the creation of a strategy for Portuguese science

diplomacy. Considering the growing number of actors involved, the lack of a global

articulation strategy prevents its potential from being fully exploited. Such strategy could

increase the effectiveness of science diplomacy by identifying synergies guided by a

coordinating structure of most relevant actors. The latter does not have to be a new

entity since the law already provides for the division of responsibilities. The Madrid

Declaration introduces some of the most important principles on which this strategy can

be based.

The Portuguese networks abroad are among the entities that can add value to national

science diplomacy through greater coordination and establishment of national objectives

measurable and situated in time. Today, these seven organizations focus on activities

carried out in their territories, functioning as a global network almost only during the

GraPE Forum. Some of current activities are of interest to Portuguese science diplomacy

and others are the result of protocols with FCT, such as PARSUK's Bilateral Research

Fund, ensuring greater synergies with national priorities. However, the global network

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effect requires a centrally coordinated and operationalized strategy in conjunction with

other local actors, such as science advisors. International activities could be organized

more easily, such as promotional campaigns, cycles of decentralized common theme

events, among others. The design of this central strategy should include a total respect

for the independence of these associations and contribute to the strengthening of their

associativism. Besides having in mind Portuguese graduates and scientists in emigration,

it should also pay attention to the motivation of active members in the associations,

including them in the creation of strategies, in the coordinating structure and events and

programs that value their volunteer time. This will guarantee a better representation of

Portuguese graduate emigrants’ interests before the State and vice versa.

A national strategy could also contribute to rethinking the disparity in the graphic identity

and nomenclatures of different organizations. Its alignment, which should not neglect

associative independence, can instantly strengthen the global network effect of

Portuguese emigrated graduates, increasing the visibility of the country’s science abroad

and spreading that it takes place all over the world. To Portuguese scientists in transit,

it would be easier to find local associations and capture the attention of potential global

partners. This is, for example, the case of Spain, whose majority of associations are

called "Asociación de Científicos Españoles en [country]" and all an apple as their logo,

maintaining a greater graphic unit and thus increasing mutual exposure. The work of

global alumni associations from EU programmes, such as the Erasmus Student Network,

the Marie Curie Alumni Association, or the EIT Alumni, can serve as inspiration for this

approach.

As the network is widened, the greater the need for general coordination of its work,

either through the self-organization of associations, or the creation of an institutional

position dedicated to it. The activities organized by the networks of Portuguese

professionals and researchers abroad could better converse with others of Portuguese

diplomacy and science.

Such strategy could also explore a better articulation between GraPE events, Encontro

Ciência and the annual GPS network event. Since there is a partial overlap of target

audiences, the discussion of a national strategy for science diplomacy may identify

redundancies to be eliminated and synergies to be created, resulting in greater visibility

and less budgeting. By bringing various actors to the same location, the event could

include a segment dedicated to the discussion of science diplomacy strategies. This

occasion could serve to organize discussion panels on the expansion and consolidation of

networks abroad, the discussion of strategies for the involvement of lusodescendants, or

the deepening of the GPS platform. Finally, this joint work could result in greater funding

for Portuguese science diplomacy activities, notably through the Horizon Europe

programme or the COST

network, thus fuelling the implementation of the objectives of

the PERIN networkPNAID.

This plan should also include a better inclusion of Portugal in science diplomacy forums,

such as the new EU Science Diplomacy Alliance. Partnerships with science advisers from

the EU and their member States stationed in countries strategic to the national interest

should be encouraged. Portuguese cities also play an important role through their

European Cooperation in Science and Technology - cost.eu.

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international partnerships and talents attraction initiatives. Finally, science funding

entities will be able to hearten their principal researchers to include science diplomacy

actions in their projects. To this end, MNE will specify the objectives to achieve in this

field and, in collaboration with MCTES, agree on the priorities by science projects in

Portugal.

That should pay attention to the public communication of results and the need for cyclical

success evaluation, an aspect that would even be innovative in the global context and

could position Portugal at the center of the academic debate on science diplomacy.

II - Human resources at the heart of the strategy

Portuguese science diplomacy should be based on the principle of brain circulation,

concerned not only with attracting more talented professionals, but also in following-up

those educated in the country (Portuguese or not) throughout their career abroad.

Through their activity, Portuguese networks abroad promote socialization between

emigrants and Luso descendants and provide opportunities for the creation of more

networks. Some already offer newsletters and survival guides for Portuguese newcomers.

These services in several countries facilitate the maintenance of the link between Portugal

and the emigrated researchers. This monitoring can grow if there is dialogue with other

initiatives, such as the GPS network or the alumni programs of IES, which also offer

newsletters and events.

In the context of human resources, the creation of a specialized communication for

lusodescendants should be considered; the creation of a special contingent in access to

higher education, which reserves 7% of the vacancies for emigrants and their families,

was an important contribution to the increase of Portugal's attractiveness to this

population. The 600 vacancies filled in the 2020-2021 school year, out of a total of 3500,

show that the initiative was of interest and that there is room to grow. However, the

attraction of emigrant graduates and lusodescendants depends on other factors, such as

streamlining equivalences of academic and professional qualifications obtained abroad,

an objective that is now integrated in the National Diaspora Investment Support Program

(PNAID). Long-term measures should also pay attention to Portuguese teaching abroad,

which should be based on a clear distinction between Portuguese as a mother tongue

and as a foreign language. Today, lusodescendants are integrated into mixed classes,

where linguistic and sociocultural immersion may not have the necessary depth for their

greater future relationship with the country (CCP Europa, 2018). In the medium and long

terms, this and other challenges related to the inclusion of lusodescendants may weaken

the objectives of programs such as PNAID or PERIN network. Due to their physical

proximity and their model based on peer interaction, associations of graduates can also

play a relevant role here, especially if they receive appropriate training from the State.

III - Training in science diplomacy

Portuguese IES and research centers will be increasingly challenged to provide training

in science diplomacy aimed for young people who decide to pursue this career and

professionals who choose to specialize in a subject. While international centers can offer

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programs open to the Portuguese, equipping them with theoretical knowledge and

examples from other countries, only a formative offer accompanied by national

institutions can respond to the specific needs of the country. As training in science

diplomacy gains international interest, particularly from academics, the construction of

this offer may also consider the rest of Lusophony, as well as foreign researchers

interested in Portuguese diplomacy and science, thus supporting its internationalization.

The country may even consider the creation of a career associated with science diplomacy

by following a specific postgraduate training. This could be done by offering training in

the IES and/or by developing training programmes for diplomats and interested

scientists. This model could include training of both Portuguese graduate associations

abroad and researchers and managers of most relevant scientific projects. The creation

of a central strategy empowers modular programs in conjunction with existing programs.

In addition, IES should continue to focus on acquiring skills relevant to this career,

notably through more opportunities for the internationalization of their students and

researchers. PERIN network could contribute to this by intending to "triple the number

of students in mobility in higher education", especially through the Erasmus+ Programme

(PERIN, 2022: 2). Skills gained after an international experience can be exposed through

a reflection programme, as suggested by the Erasmus Skills

project, funded by

Erasmus+. As for incoming students, the institutions should promote their involvement

in the creation and active implementation of their internationalization strategies (Mourato

Pinto and Benke-Åberg, 2019), like in the Barcelona example. These involvements of

"internationalized" students contribute to the acquisition of important skills for science

diplomacy. Finally, IES vocational training support offices should receive instructions on

opportunities in the area to better advise interested pupils.

IV - Towards Team Portugal

Lastly, and because science diplomacy is only one of the expressions of Portuguese

diplomacy and science, the conception of a strategy for this field should have as main

objective the better integration of what Portugal already does. The aim is to create a

single "Portugal Team", which should meet periodically and aggregate the main actors,

such as the different advisers in embassies, the Councillors of the Portuguese

Communities, emigrated entrepreneurs, networks, etc. The latter could disseminate with

greater ownership the most relevant messages of Portuguese foreign science and policy

among its members, effectively involving scientists in national diplomacy and thus

expanding the reach of national soft power. For a country with limited resources,

geographically small and peripheral in the European context, the extension of soft power

through emigration has a potential for relative power gains that can be better explored.

The creation of a Portugal Team could facilitate the creation of a unique message,

increasing the effectiveness of the new expressions of the country’s diplomacy. It is about

building the governance of Portuguese science diplomacy, blurring institutional

boundaries, and promoting the interdisciplinarity and collaborative spirit that are

essential to it.

erasmusskills.eu sorry.

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Conclusion

Scientific production in Portugal is reaching a new level with a record number of

publications, registered patents, and brain circulation inside and outside the country. This

climate of innovation, associated with the growing number of students in higher

education, the potential of both diaspora and Lusophony and the possibilities opened by

European funds, make this the right time for a strong focus on science diplomacy. This

paper sought to identify some dynamics resulting from the implementation Resolution of

the Council of Ministers No. 78/2016, especially those most relevant to the networks of

Portuguese professionals and researchers abroad, to contributing to the debate on the

subject. It is useful a national strategy for science diplomacy that promotes academic

and scientific associativism of the Portuguese diaspora for supporting careers without

national barriers, but still connected to the country and contributing to its progress, even

from abroad.

Part of the future success of Portuguese science diplomacy relies on its ability to capture

its graduates, through IES, cities, and embassies. In all of them, networks abroad can

play a key role in combining formal and informal dimensions of international experience,

promoting a good integration of Portuguese out of homeland, and attracting foreigners

to investigate in the country. They are fundamental in this "circulation of brains" that

modern science promotes and in which Portugal has been involved. By keeping graduates

linked to homeland, Portugal may be able to capture more foreign direct investment and

increase its profile in international organizations. Through this strategy, the country can

contribute more actively to the definition of science diplomacy, clarifying practices and

discourses, creating communication strategies, and establishing dedicated careers.

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