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e-ISSN: 1647-7251
Thematic dossier
International Relations and Social Networks
July 2021
4
THE ROLE OF SOCIAL NETWORKS IN CYBER-DIPLOMACY
IN THE CONTEXT OF 5G
DANIEL MUÑOZ-SASTRE
daniel.munoz.sastre@uva.es
PhD in Audiovisual Communication and Advertising. Lecturer at the University of Valladolid where
he teaches the subjects of Culture and Corporate Identity and Brand Management. Member of
the Research Group on Trends in Advertising and Consumption of the Icono 14 Association. He
has been editor-in-chief at the two main Spanish radio stations, SER and COPE, advisor to
various companies and institutions on corporate identity issues and contributor to the candidacy
of Segovia (Spain) for European Capital of Culture in 2016.
ISABEL RODRIGO-MARTÍN
isabel.rodrigo@uva.es
PhD in Audiovisual Communication and Advertising and Master’s in communication with Social
Purges: Strategies and Campaigns from the University of Valladolid. Senior Lecturer at the
University of Valladolid. He has won the Caja España 2007 research prize and the IV Research
Scholarship of the Institute of Traditional Segovian Culture of the Provincial Council of Segovia.
She is a researcher at the Complutense University of Madrid (Spain) in the Chair of Digital
Communication in Childhood and Adolescence and in the SocMedia Research Group.
LUIS RODRIGO-MARTÍN
luis.rodrigo@uva.es
PhD in Audiovisual Communication and Advertising and Bachelor of Law. Senior Lecturer at the
University of Valladolid (Spain). He has been recognized with the Caja España and Caja Segovia
research prizes for two projects related to communication and consumption. Researcher of the
Complutense Chair of Communication and Marketing in Childhood and Adolescence. He is the
author of several books and about thirty articles in scientific journals. He was Director of
Communication of the Segovia Campus of the University of Valladolid.
Abstract
The implementation of the 5G network has led to one of the most serious diplomatic clashes
in recent years. The commercial war between the United States and China to lead the
development of the fifth generation of mobile Internet is being fought, among other
battlefields, on social networks. Our research analyzes the role of these communication tools
in the framework of this international conflict. It examines the use of social networks and their
value in the development of what is known as cyber-diplomacy. At the same time, we look
into the decisions taken by both states aimed at banning the activity of certain social networks
in their respective territories. The study shows the importance of social networks in the
transmission of messages between the contending parties and how they use them to attack
and defend their respective interests.
Keywords
Cyber-diplomacy; social networks; 5G; United States; China
How to cite this article
Muñoz-Sastre, Daniel; Rodrigo-Martín, Isabel; Rodrigo-Martín, Luís. The role of social
networks in cyber-diplomacy in the context of 5G. Janus.net, e-journal of international
relations. Thematic dossier International Relations and Social Networks, July 2021.
Consulted[online] in date of the last visit, https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT21.1
Article received on em January 4, 2021 and accepted for publication on March 22, 2021
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e-ISSN: 1647-7251
Thematic dossier – International Relations and Social Media (July 2021), pp. 4-18
The role of social networks in cyber-diplomacy in the context of 5G
Daniel Muñoz-Sastre, Isabel Rodrigo-Martín, Luis Rodrigo-Martín
5
THE ROLE OF SOCIAL NETWORKS IN CYBER-DIPLOMACY
IN THE CONTEXT OF 5G
1
DANIEL MUÑOZ-SASTRE
ISABEL RODRIGO-MARTÍN
LUIS RODRIGO-MARTÍN
Introduction
The unstoppable digital transformation underway since the beginning of the 21
st
century
is not limited to the incorporation of technological tools and processes in all areas of life—
from the industrial to the domestic sector, including everything related to governance.
This process is shaping a new world order, with new balances and imbalances. It is a
race full of opportunities for states that have hitherto played a secondary role on the
international scene, while posing new threats to the traditionally dominant countries. The
battle to drive this change began with the imposition of trade restrictions through heavy
tariffs, thus aggravating tensions and escalating the risk of confrontation between those
states aspiring to lead the international order.
The World Economic Forum already warned about the role of new technologies in this
reconfiguration of the world scene in its Global Risks Report 2018 (World Economic
Forum, 2018: 7). It pointed to the cybernetic sphere as a source of tensions leading to
potential conflicts in a context of new alliances and market configurations. Three years
later, the Global Risks Report 2021 lists digital power concentration and digital inequality
among the seven main global risks for this year (World Economic Forum, 2021: 14). The
World Economic Forum also warns that political confrontation between states may affect
the activity of some companies (World Economic Forum, 2021: 65).
The importance of technology in international relations is best illustrated by the
escalating confrontation between the United States and China over technological
leadership, and in particular the development of the fifth generation mobile Internet (5G).
China’s growing economic, military and technological power has led to a rebalance of
power in a world order hitherto dominated by the United States. That is why some
authors focus on their bilateral relation as the most relevant for the 21
st
century (Sutter,
2011: 1). Their ongoing struggle has prompted other governments to implement
measures such as tariffs on technological products (Natixis, 2018). The development and
deployment of 5G networks goes beyond the realm of technology and enters into
geopolitics (Morozov, 2020).
1
Article translated by Frutos Miranda Traductores.
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Daniel Muñoz-Sastre, Isabel Rodrigo-Martín, Luis Rodrigo-Martín
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The ill feeling between the United States and China is not new, nor did it originate with
the arrival of 5G. Disagreements have been going on for a long time and in recent
decades tensions between the two countries have been constant. The Clinton
administration already threatened the Asian giant. However, the intervention of some of
the most prominent American companies with interests in China helped to defuse the
tension—which again escalated during Trump’s presidency. Some analysts consider that
this confrontation goes beyond a specific moment or context, and that it will underpin all
future relations between both countries, since “anti-China sentiment runs deep in both
parties in Congress. Tariffs have become normalized weapons. That will continue to push
Washington and Beijing on a collision course, no matter who occupies the White House”
(Chon, 2020).
The novelty of the current contention lies in the increasing role and use of social networks
in institutional relations, leading to so-called digital diplomacy or cyber-diplomacy,
analyzed among others by Maccarthy (2015) and Manfredi Sánchez, according to whom,
“digital diplomacy provides an opportunity for political participation, activism and agenda
setting” (Manfredi Sánchez, 2014: 352). The presence of social networks in the
diplomatic sphere has become commonplace, whether through accounts belonging to
public agencies or to political leaders: “Social networks are part of the communicative
reality of today’s international society and are undoubtedly becoming the battlefield of
the 21
st
century” (Rodríguez Cela, Parras-Parras and Romero-Vara 2019: 723).
The study of how social networks affect international politics becomes even more
interesting due to the intense activity of President Trump during his term in office.
Trump’s regular use of Twitter to make public announcements of all kinds through his
personal account @realDonaldTrump (including the dismissal of staff, threats to other
countries’ leaders, and his opinions on different current issues) made this social network
one of the most important references to know the intentions of the American president.
Furthermore, these publications made by Trump throughout all these years provide a
historical document for the assessment of his administration.
The use of social networks raises the following issues:
- Analyzing the use of social networks in cyber-diplomacy regarding the implementation
of 5G.
- Understanding the intent of the messages published on official government accounts.
- Determining the main concepts included in these messages.
- Studying the decisions of both governments regarding the activity of different social
networks in their respective territories.
This study is part of a broader project on the deployment of 5G networks, which began
in 2018 to assess the impact of this new technology on different environments—including
digital social platforms (Muñoz-Sastre at al., 2019). This paper focuses on the role of
social networks, and specifically Twitter, in the confrontation between the United States
and China over the global implementation of the fifth generation of mobile Internet. All
the above leads to the following initial hypothesis:
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e-ISSN: 1647-7251
Thematic dossier – International Relations and Social Media (July 2021), pp. 4-18
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H1. The agreements and disagreements between the US and China aired through social
networks in recent years regarding the implementation of 5G bring a new scenario for
international relations—that of cyber-diplomacy—with social networks as a key player.
Methodology
The time frame of the study covers Trump’s presidency, between 20 January 2017 and
20 January 2021, which includes the moments of greatest tension between the US and
China. This period coincides with the beginning of the works for the implementation and
commercial exploitation of 5G networks. We focus on Twitter because it registered the
highest activity concerning 5G from official accounts linked to the US and China, or some
of their main leaders (see Table 1).
Table 1. List of Twitter accounts analyzed
ACCOUNT
COUNTRY
LINK
@WhiteHouse
US
@realDonaldTrump
US
@StateDept
US
@SecPompeo
US
@USA_China_Talk
US
@zlj517
China
@MFA_China
China
@ChineseEmbinUS
China
@chinascio
China
Source: own compilation.
For the selection of the study sample, we reviewed all messages published by these
accounts directly linked the subject matter, obtaining a sample of 275 messages (133
from Chinese accounts and 142 from US accounts). Subsequently, we carried out a
quantitative and qualitative analysis of the messages. This retrospective study is
observational, analytic, and explanatory, without any manipulation of the variables. We
analyzed the publications in depth to identify their effects on the relations between these
two world powers. The research consists of three stages as shown in Table 2:
Table 2. Research stages
STAGE
SCOPE
OBJECTIVES
1
Theoretical framework
Approach to the object of study
Contextualization and conceptualization
2
Message analysis
Study sample selection
Sample analysis
3
Discussion
Search for answers
Findings
Source: own compilation.
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Taking into account the objectives and hypothesis of this study, the variables considered
are:
- The number of messages published on the different accounts.
- The tone used in those posts.
- The decision-making by both governments.
New forms of diplomacy
From traditional diplomacy to cyber-diplomacy
Diplomacy, defined by Kissinger (1955: 8) as “the art of relating states to each other by
agreement rather than by the exercise of force”, is a practice that dates back to antiquity.
It has undergone major transformations throughout history. Initially, it had an itinerant
nature, linked to a specific contact or negotiation between states. It then became
permanent in the 15
th
century through the diplomatic practices implemented by the Holy
See and later developed by the Italian states—mainly Venice, considered the forerunner
of modern diplomacy (Calduch Cervera, 1993).
However, until World War I, relations and agreements between states remained secret.
It was not until January 1918, ten months before the end of the conflict, that US President
Woodrow Wilson delivered a speech to the Congress outlining his proposals to ensure
peace, begin the reconstruction of Europe, and establish a new international order. In his
fourteen points, Wilson advocated “open agreements and no secret diplomacy in the
future” (Cátedra de Derecho Internacional Público de la Universidad Católica de la Plata,
2010).
This statement marks the beginning of what is known as public diplomacy, an approach
to international relations that involves citizens in the agreements and disagreements
between countries. Professor Gilboa (2008) addresses the study of public diplomacy from
a multidisciplinary perspective, ranging from the field of diplomacy to that of
communication, including international and public relations. In one of his works, Gilboa
(2000) incisively reflects on the relationship between current diplomacy and the media,
presenting six conceptual models to study this connection.
Technologies such as the radio, the television or the Internet have played a major role
in opening diplomacy to the public. In particular, the Internet is essential in the ongoing
transformation of international relations. Indeed, cyber-diplomacy is defined as the
digitalization of this field of politics. In the words of Prof. Rafael Rubio, we face “an
extension of public diplomacy allowing states to participate in distributed information
networks” (Rubio, 2011: 44).
The role of social networks in cyber-diplomacy
For some time now, social networks have become increasingly relevant in the field of
diplomacy. As pointed out by Rodríguez Gómez (2015: 926), “This 2.0 universe of social
networks provides the ministries of foreign affairs with tools that should be used for their
socializing and globalizing potential, as well as for their bidirectionality and, therefore,
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their feedback capacity.” Manfredi Sánchez (2013) also refers to the centrality of social
networks in diplomacy: “Social networks provide new opportunities for the participation
of non-state actors, paving the way for public diplomacy and the achievement of political
objectives.” In a similar vein, Grossman (2006) considers that social networks offer an
opportunity to advance international relations beyond the meeting of politicians or
leaders to an understanding between people.
The presence of governments and leaders in social networks has gradually increased in
recent years. Since 2018 Twitter is considered the social network of choice for
governments and world leaders (Burson Cohn & Wolfe, Ltd, 2018). According to the
Twiplomacy study 2020, 98% of UN member states are present on social networks. Only
four countries (Laos, North Korea, Sao Tome and Principe, and Turkmenistan) lack
accounts on that social network (Burson Cohn & Wolfe, Ltd, 2020). As far as leaders are
concerned, Donald Trump heads the list of world leaders with the largest number of
followers on Twitter, over 88 million according to the last figure registered in his personal
account on the day it was suspended (Brown, 2021).
Aware of the potential impact of messages posted on social networks, several
governments and supranational institutions have developed regulations for their use in
the field of cyber-diplomacy. See, for instance, the Council Conclusions on Cyber
Diplomacy, adopted by the Council of the European Union (2015), or the digital diplomacy
plans drawn up by countries such as France (Ministère de l'Europe et des Affaires
étrangères, 2017) and Spain (Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, Unión Europea y
Cooperación. Gobierno de España, 2015). All of them provide guidelines on the use of
these new technologies, including social networks, in the field of diplomacy.
The US-China conflict via Twitter
As already mentioned, US-China relations are among the most relevant elements from
the point of view of diplomacy in the first decades of the 21
st
century, with moments of
greater and lesser tension in these last years. During this time, the US has regarded
China as a strategic partner on some occasions and as a strategic competitor on others.
Despite these differences, many experts agree that these two countries are doomed to
understand each other (Bustelo and Soto, 2003).
However, the development of the fifth generation of mobile Internet has heightened the
tension between both powers over the control of a technology with infinite capabilities
that has become key in shaping the new world order. Both the US and China acknowledge
the importance of 5G, although with some differences in their respective positions. As
pointed out by Jinghua (2020), this is a race that America must win, while for China it
represents a major leap in the field of information and communication technologies.
The governments and some leaders of both countries have taken this rivalry to social
networks, particularly Twitter. Nine official accounts, two personal accounts and seven
institutional accounts directly linked to these administrations show an important activity
in terms of messages about 5G.
A total of 275 publications on the fifth generation of mobile Internet were published by
the most prominent official accounts of both countries. Most of these messages are
written in English (83%), and only those published by the US Embassy in China are
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written in the language of the Asian giant. It is worth noting that most publications post
original content created by the account owners (84%), while the rest (16%) are retweets
from other accounts. US profiles show the highest number of retweeted messages. Also
relevant is the message impact analysis, which shows a significant difference between
posts from US and Chinese profiles (Chart 1).
When it comes to the intent of those publications, most of them seek to extol the
capacity, technological power and influence of each country, or to present their
achievements, whether technical or diplomatic. See for instance the Clean Network, a
US-led initiative that brought together an alliance of countries opposed to the
implementation of Chinese-backed 5G technology. The analysis of the sample messages
showed a third objective: to attack the opponent (Chart 2). When analyzed by country,
it can be seen that US messages mainly seek to warn about the risks associated with
Chinese technology and to undermine its interests. On the other hand, messages from
accounts linked to the Chinese government essentially aim at defending against such
attacks and praising the technological capacity of the Asian giant (Chart 3).
Chart 1. Message impact by country (absolute data).
Source: own compilation.
Chart 2. Message intent (%)
Source: own compilation.
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Chart 3. Message intent by country (%)
Source: own compilation.
Security and privacy issues are among the most mentioned in the analyzed posts, only
after direct references to China and the US—almost ubiquitous. Behind them are other
topics such as the alleged threats posed by the implementation of 5G networks,
references to communism or the Chinese Communist Party, and to human rights. Notions
such as trust, democracy or human rights only appear in messages from US accounts—
as opposed to references to China, the US, and freedom, that prevail in Chinese posts
(Chart 4).
Chart 4. Concept relevance by country (%)
Source: own compilation.
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Also remarkable is the evolution of publications related to 5G over the reference period.
According to our study, it was not until the spring of 2019 that the messages on the fifth
generation of mobile Internet increased exponentially. In April and May of that year, both
countries intensified their activity on Twitter with different purposes: extolling their own
technological capacity, questioning their opponent’s technology, and accusing each other
of bad practices. The online confrontation subsequently escalated in November and
December 2019, as well as in May and July 2020 (Chart 5). Another spike was recorded
at the end of 2020 and in the first weeks of 2021, coinciding with the final days of Trump’s
presidency—prompting the researchers to extend the study to include that period.
Chart 5. Evolution of publications (absolute data)
Source: own compilation.
The messages posted during those three periods of particular intensity have similar
purposes and refer to the same concepts. However, the second spike shows several
publications regarding the arrest in Canada of Huawei’s deputy chair and CFO—Huawei
being the leading Chinese technology company and 5G champion. In that period there
are also messages about the possible banning of Chinese apps such as TikTok in the US.
In the third period of maximum intensity there are constant messages from the US about
the Clean Network international alliance. Figure 1 shows some messages to illustrate this
tension between both countries.
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Figure 1. Example of diplomatic confrontation between the US and China.
Source: Zhao (2020) and the US Department of State (2020).
Finally, the study provides a detailed analysis of each profile by number of publications
on this technology:
− @chinascio is the official account of the State Council Information Office of China,
active since September 2015, with around 44,500 followers. During the analyzed
period, it published a total of 67 messages regarding 5G technology—65 of which with
own content and 2 retweets, receiving 488 “likes” and 206 retweets. Most of its
messages are expository and praise China’s technological potential.
− @zlj517 is the official personal account of the spokesman and deputy director general
of the Information Department of China’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs. He joined Twitter
in May 2010 and has over 879,900 followers. This account has published 49 messages
related to the fifth generation of mobile Internet, 47 of which are own content and 2
are shared from other accounts. It is the Chinese profile with the most followers and
responses to its publications, most of which defend Chinese interests and attack US
comments and measures, once even launching a warning. He insistently repeats the
names of both countries.
− @USA_China_Talk is the account of the US Embassy in China. Active since 2009, it
has approximately 1,147,000 followers. It is the only account analyzed that posts its
messages in Chinese. Of its 46 publications on the subject matter, most are retweets
from accounts linked to the US administration. The tone of its messages is mostly
aggressive and warning, and after the name of both countries the concepts most
mentioned are security and privacy.
− @SecPompeo is the profile of the US Secretary of State during Donald Trump’s
presidency. This account was opened in April 2018, it has just over three million
followers and it has remained inactive since the end of Trump’s term in office. With 41
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messages on 5G, all of them his own, it is arguably the most active US profile on this
social network and, after President Trump’s, the one that generates the greatest
response from Internet users with more than 315,600 "likes" and 89,500 retweets of
its publications about that technology. These messages are mostly of an expository
nature, extolling US capabilities and attacking the Asian giant. Security is among the
most mentioned issues in Pompeo’s posts.
− @StateDept is the official account of the US State Department and has been active
since 2007. It has more than 6 million followers and during the period analyzed it
published 37 messages related to 5G, all of them its own. However, in terms of impact,
these posts did not reach the response elicited by the messages published by the head
of the department on his personal account. Most of the messages are attacks against
the Asian rival and warnings both to China and third countries. References to security,
communism and privacy are common.
− @realDonaldTrump is President Donald Trump’s personal profile. It is among the most
followed accounts, with 88.7 million followers, and one of the most controversial, to
the point that Twitter decided to suspend it in January 2021, twelve years after its
creation. Although it is not the account with the highest number of posts related to 5G
(only 13), they get the most reactions of the entire study, with about 682,000 "likes"
and 188,000 retweets. In these publications, Trump mainly warns China and other
countries to follow Washington’s indications and exposes US technological potential.
Among the most frequently used terms are those related to security, the very name
of the United States and communism.
− @MFA_China is the official account of China’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Created in
October 2019, it has just over 247,500 followers. During the analyzed period, it
published a dozen messages linked to 5G, all of them its own. They have little impact,
with just over 3,300 "likes" and 744 retweets. Most of these messages are intended
to defend against accusations or attacks from the United States or to warn against
attacks on China’s interests. Words such as China, United States or security are the
most repeated.
− @ChineseEmbinUS is the profile of the Chinese Embassy in the United States, created
in 2019 and with about 83,000 followers. It published seven messages about 5G, four
of which are retweeted content from other sources. It elicited fewer responses than
the rest of the accounts studied, with 313 "likes" and 89 retweets. Its posts on the
fifth generation of mobile Internet seek to extol China’s technological development
potential.
− @WhiteHouse: is the official White House account. It was opened in 2016 but, like the
President’s official one (@POTUS), it is archived every time the tenant of the US
presidential residence changes. During Trump’s four years in office, five messages
related to 5G were published from this account, all of them its own and fundamentally
aimed at praising the capacity of the US. Unsurprisingly, the name of the country is
the most repeated.
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Discussion
In light of the analysis carried out, social networks are not mere communication tools
within the field of diplomacy. Rather, they are key instruments for the development of
international relations. By enabling citizen involvement in these relations, social
platforms are a perfect embodiment of open diplomacy and cyber-diplomacy.
In the case of 5G, this openness is illustrated by the type of messages published by the
Chinese and US administrations or by some of their most prominent leaders. The initial
hypothesis is fully confirmed, as can be seen in the message exchange between both
powers through different Twitter accounts.
From the gathered data, there is a noteworthy difference in the nature of the messages
published by accounts from each country. While Chinese posts are more defensive or
aimed at praising the country or advancing its interests, those from the US are mostly in
a warning and threatening tone. This is also the case with the most repeated terms.
While US accounts insist on concepts such as democracy, trust or human rights, the
terms most often mentioned in Chinese publications are China, the US, and freedom. All
this closely reflects the policy approach of each government.
Conclusions
This study shows how the diplomatic use of social networks makes it possible to analyze
the political agenda in the context of the relations between two or more countries. Hence,
issues such as US actions against Huawei or the restrictions that the Trump
administration intended to impose on networks such as TikTok burst into the digital scene
and become not only political issues but also matters of public debate.
On the other hand, one of the essential purposes of cyber-diplomacy is to influence
international public opinion, as shown in this case by the intent and content of the
messages. This study shows that social networks, and specifically Twitter, are used to
attack the opponent, to defend against his accusations, for self-congratulation, as well
as to warn of possible consequences or alleged risks. Issues such as security, defense,
privacy, freedom or human rights are raised in a large number of the messages analyzed.
None of these terms and concepts go unnoticed by citizens and they have a great
mobilization capacity around certain causes.
Finally, the message impact analysis leads to another conclusion: the personal nature of
Trump’s presidency. Even if he is not the one who tweeted the most about 5G during
these years, the messages from his personal account are the ones that get the most
“likes” or retweets. This fact highlights the personification of diplomacy, until now not so
visible to society, but nonetheless a reality within the currently developing model of
cyber-diplomacy—thus paving a new way for conducting international relations in the
21
st
century.
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