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Vol. 9, Nº. 2 (November 2018-April 2019), pp. 93-108

TRADITIONAL RELIGION IN GUINEA BISSAU POLITICAL CULTURE

Claudia Favarato

favaratoclaudia@gmail.com

PhD candidate in Political Science at Instituto Superior de Ciências Sociais e Políticas (ISCSP,

Portugal), University of Lisbon; Master in African Studies, ISCSP, University of Lisbon; Master in

International Politics and Diplomacy, University of Padua; collaborating researcher at Centro de

Estudos Africanos (CEAF) of ISCSP, University of Lisbon.

Abstract

The present article aims to unveil the importance of the indigenous animist religious system

within Guinea Bissau political culture. By analysing the contrast between the inherent

legitimation of State authority and local-traditional ones it is discerned the type of political

culture shared by Guinean people.

Taking into account the exacerbation of public responsiveness to symbols manipulation when

levels of human security are felt lower by individuals, I discuss the importance of religious

symbolic capital inherent in Guinea Bissau national leaders’ politics, pinpointing the case of

José Bernardino “Nino” Vieira.

These practices enable State authorities to legitimize their authority, to overcome the ethnical

heterogeneity impasse and to compensate for loose relationships between the government

and the citizens.

Finally, I discuss the manipulation of the religious dimension for political ends as a milestone

of the process of africanization of power, due to religious and political syncretism typical of

traditional African political systems, on the one hand. On the other hand, I question how

myths worshipping the national leaders might foster the breakthrough of an authoritarian

political regime.

Keywords

Guinea Bissau; political culture; symbolic capital; African political system; African traditional

religion

How to cite this article

Favarato, Claudia (2018). "Traditional religion in Guinea Bissau political culture". JANUS.NET

e-journal of International Relations, Vol. 9, N.º 2, November 2018-April 2019. Consulted

[online] on the date of the last visit, https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.9.2.7

Article received on December 21, 2017 and accepted for publication on July 1, 2018

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 9, Nº. 2 (November 2018-April 2019), pp. 93-108

Traditional religion in Guinea Bissau political culture

Claudia Favarato

TRADITIONAL RELIGION IN GUINEA BISSAU POLITICAL CULTURE

Claudia Favarato

Introduction

Through this article I aim to discern the importance of traditional religion in Guinea Bissau

political culture. State coups that sparked throughout the past five decades weakened

the State-building process, and the strengthening of a liberal democracy based on the

rule of law. For remarkable ethnical heterogeneity, traditional authorities enjoy strong

legitimacy hindering the strength of formal State authorities. Moreover, religious values,

mostly expressed through the indigenous animist cosmologies, persist strong among

Bissau-Guinean.

First, I identify the political culture type prevalent in Guinea Bissau, based on Almond &

Verba (1989 [1963]) classification, by unveiling the threefold political structure and by

emphasizing patterns of contrast between State authority and traditional-local

authorities.

Second, researches (Inglehart, Basañes & Moreno, 1998; Inglehart & Norris, 2011) show

that among people living in low income conditions or in failed or poorer States religiosity

persist strong. Therefore, public responsiveness to symbols manipulation is lightened

when people are personally vulnerable to political-economic distress or when they feel

unable to deal with their problems. According to the human security secularization thesis

(Inglehart & Norris, 2011), it is discussed the importance of religious-grounded symbolic

capital as a tool used by Guinea Bissau leaders to legitimize their authority and overcome

the ethnical heterogeneity impasse.

The third part of the article focuses on importance of the religious dimension within

Guinea Bissau political culture. Data outcomes are expected to verify postulated

hypothesis on the ends of religious values’ manipulation. On the one hand, I hypothesised

that, whilst the employ of religious based symbols by national leaders is a tool to

compensate for loose relationships between the government and the citizens, such

practices are part of traditional African political systems. In this sense, their mingling

with the State-system marks a milestone in the africanization of Power process. On the

other hand, due to outstandingly high levels of legitimation and consent they provide,

along with a sense of fright among the population, myths worshipping the person of the

president endorse the breakthrough of an authoritarian political system.

The discernment outlined in this article is based on data gathered from field work (Biombo

region, October to December 2016). Techniques as informal conversations with

representative of the local-traditional political system, along with participant observation

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Traditional religion in Guinea Bissau political culture

Claudia Favarato

within rural settlement daily life and occurrences, furnished the necessary data to chart.

A clear as possible account of the prevalent political culture type.

Moreover, the analysis is enriched by categorical discourse analysis of semi-structured

interviews, underpinned by an inductive taxonomy. The latter were submitted to a

selected, representative corpus, encompassing different age groups. The interviewees

are Bissau-Guinean university students and professors who witnessed the three-decades

(1980-2009) long era of José Bernardino “Nino”’ Vieira government. The interviews

pinpoint how the President Nino engaged with symbolic capital in the exercise of his

power.

Guinea Bissau political scenario

Following independence (September 24

, 1974) from Portugal, Guinea Bissau has been

ruled by the former liberation movement, PAIGC (Partido Africano para a Independência

da Guiné e Cabo Verde). After the 1980 coup, João Bernardino “Nino” Vieira took charge

as president; he maintained his office till 1998. State coups, assassinations and disputes

between the politicians and the army have been a hallmark of Guinean political turmoil

since the formal institution of pluralistic democracy in 1994. Guinea Bissau is formally a

semi-presidential representative democracy; albeit, political activities seldom are not

consistent with what stated in the Constitution (1984) provisions.

Nation and State-building processes are at stake due to social, cultural and political

legacies. On the one hand, there lacks an open, free-informed system of relation between

governed and government. On the other hand, the process of embodying citizens within

one national identity is hampered by ethnical heterogeneity (Forrest, 2003). In the

country, there are almost thirty ethnicities and none of this has a high prevalence among

the population. Balanta (26%), Papel (9.2%), Bijagós (2.1%), Manjaco (9.2%),

Mancanha (3.5%) are the most significant animist ethnicities, representative of almost

50% of the total population, whether Fula (25%) and Mandinga are the main Muslim

ethnicities (Nóbrega, 2003). There is no predominant ethnical group in the political

sphere

, nor there are any records of political vote in the country. Ethnic identity is not

determinative of a given community’s political choice (Forrest, 2003: 187). The parcelling

off of identities matches identity patterns more tightly with individuals’ ethnical group

than with the nation.

Ethnical identity patterns are not limited to the cultural cluster but affect the political

sphere also. Most of the people refers to local authority rather than to the State

(Favarato, 2017); the State is fragile and lacks legitimation among people, especially in

the rural realm. Heritage of the former colonial one, current Guinean State is shaped on

a European apparatus, which was not able to penetrate and rearrange social, traditional

configuration of power (Forrest, 2003).

Portuguese indirect rule system, implemented during the 1800, was based on local

committees, called Comités de Tabanca (Forrest, 2003: 142). The latter were intended

to pervasively spread State power among native people. Although, the colonial ruling

Although, Álvaro Nóbrega refers to “balantização do Estado” process. Balanta ethnical group presence is

majoritary within the armed forces, hence the increasing power Balanta are gaining in the militar and

political sphere (Nóbrega, 2015).

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Claudia Favarato

system was corrupted by the locals, who elected people endowed with traditional

authority or weak individuals for position in the committee (Nóbrega, 2003). Strength of

local, traditional political and social structure prevailed over the colonizer. The

independent State ruled by PAICG inherited such structural fragilities; State’s capacity is

limited to cities and community-based authorities hold power over rural society.

Contemporary structure of African political systems is ontologically composed of three

elements: pre-colonial structures, colonial cultural-political legacies, and post-colonial

State developments, inherently influenced by the globalization process and the modern

neoliberal State model. The three parcels are not exclusive, for they work in reciprocal

synergy in the inner social, cultural and political reality. Guinea Bissau political culture is

ipso facto a heterogeneous cultural mix. The threefold structure provides a sound

explanation on the State-traditional powers dialectic. PAICG reiterated attacks against

traditional power depicted it as backward, indigenous, uncivilized; therefore, they

engendered a backlash, expressed through the recent revitalization of traditional power

revitalization (Carvalho, 2004).

Despite State’s sovereignty over all Guinean territory, local and traditional authorities

strength is high throughout all ethnical groups. Local leaders’ legitimacy is likely due to

their political and/or religious role (Bordonaro, 2009).

Importance of ancestors and spirits, along with invention of tradition (Hobsbawm, 2002),

prompted the recent revitalization of traditional power in Guinea Bissau. To confirm and

through the support of blood-soul legacies with metaphysical forces and the ancestors,

the newly appointed régulo successfully perform traditional rituals and ceremonies. The

latter are a means to assert authority, broaden symbolic capital and strengthen power.

Traditional legitimation practices are the hallmark of the syncretism between the secular

and religious power: legitimacy, power and authority of traditional leaders (régulos) is

tightly dependent on their religious force and their commitment with animist “cerimonia

di terra

” (Favarato, 2017).

Political culture and importance of traditional religion

Individuals’ orientation toward political system and political action are determinant

elements to discern local and traditional authorities’ legitimacy. Those patterns of

orientation are best summed in the expression political culture (Almond, 1956: 396), due

to the peculiar epistemological traits the two terms refer to on their own. Together, they

define a specific cluster of culture, differentiated and partially autonomous from culture

at large.

Culture is a collective phenomenon in which individuals bring together their own set of

world outlooks, interpretation of reality, feelings and expectations. Culture is a broad

term; it refers to individual (ego-tropic or psychologic traits) and societal (socio-tropic)

aspects. Due to institutions, socialization, education and communication media, a culture

Anthropologist Clara Carvalho (2004) distinguish between local and traditional power. The former is an

independent rule structure, historically deep-rooted in customary practices and social habitus; the label of

traditional is due to the source of power legitimation. Guinean régulos underpin their authority in the self-

justifying notion of “tradition”.

“Di terra” is used to refer to tradition, both in its immanent and material aspect. Therefore it is linked to

animist forces, spirits (irân) and ancestors.

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is “the signifying system through which a social order is communicated, reproduced,

experienced and explored” (Williams, 1983: 13). Lacking clear boundaries of definition,

it includes notions of diverse clusters of knowledge, as anthropology, sociology,

psychology, political science, religion, art.

Distinguishable from non-political attitudes, political culture denotes how the political

system is internalized in form of cognitions, feelings and evaluations. The combination of

the terms political and culture refers to people’s psychological orientations toward social

objects, or in other words the totality of ideas and attitudes toward authority discipline,

governmental responsibilities and entitlements, and associated patterns of cultural

transmission (Robertson, 2002).

Political culture can be categorized according to type, subcultures and congruence

between political culture and political system. With regard to Guinea Bissau case, it is

identifiable a participant type shared by the elite, whilst most of Guinean population is

embedded in parochial political culture

(Almond & Verba, 1989 [1963]), insofar

traditional authorities are referred to as first legitimate authority rather than the central

State. A political orientation does not exclude nor replace the other; there is no

homogeneity or uniformity of political culture as such, but a cultural heterogeneity or

mix, founded on subcultures cleavages.

Orientation toward political action is deducible by a synthesis of cognitive, cathexis and

evaluation elements (Almond, 1956: 396). In terms of affection, evaluation of the State

and government present negative traits: little or nothing is expected from the political

system and awareness of the government presence tends to be linked to family interests.

Moreover, reforms and permanence of change (Bordonaro, 2009), yet not leading to any

shifts nor improvements fostered a sense of resignation mixed with hope for the future.

According to Bissau-Guinean, the country’s political structure in inefficient and unable to

provide for people’s need, for the State personnel is on average corrupted. Politicians are

blamed of corruption and of serving of their position for the sake of personal interests.

Such a selfish attitude counteracts desirable features of a political leader: traditional

authorities enjoy legitimacy insofar they responsibly rule for the well-beings of the

individuals (Monteiro, 2016: 163). A good leader shall use power for the common benefit

of the community.

Traditional political titles are a lifelong office, conferred upon criteria of age, wisdom,

courage and value. Customary law provisions (FDB & INEP, 2012) appoint a council of

elders (Omi Garandi) and a committee of counsellors to mentor a regulo’s governance.

Individuals obey decisions and rules enacted due to their justness; it is very unlikely that

violations occur. Most of local authorities’ dispositions are underpinned in indigenous

animist foundation, which foster the prohibition. To violate a norm would make one guilty

According to the parochial type model, political roles are not specialized and there are not separated from

religious and/or social orientation. Whether it may occur in larger-scale and differentiated polities, parochial

orientation is more common in simpler, circumscribed traditional systems (Almond & Verba, 1989 [1963]:

17).

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in front of irân

, who has no mercy for human beings: punishments often involve death

or ceaseless mufunesa

(Favarato, 2017).

No matter of local political life is kept behind the scenes. Orality is a fundamental

communication mean in a context of medium-poor literacy level; lacking printed or IT

media resources, meetings under the shadow of the mango trees are the selected spot

for political talks and discussions. The quick sharing of oral information (through

counsellors’ official transmission and mouth-to-mouth talks) and high level of societal

consent can foster a leader’s positive image as can quickly destroy one’s reputation on

the basis of tattles. Trust is of utter importance in a political world underpinned on orality.

Whether all citizens are informed on political matters, participation in the political life is

casted within boundaries tightly linked to gender and performance of traditional

ceremonies. Rituals, not age, define phases of one’s life. Boys ought to perform fanado

(a three-months-long test of resistance) to rightfully become active member of the

political community. Who does not perform the ceremony, entirely or partially, is given

the depreciating name blufo and is not ever eligible for marriage. Women are generally

excluded from political life and they are not allowed to cover political offices

. Contrarily,

no prohibition as such is recorded in the religious system.

Mirroring the family’s functioning, the local political structure despises selfishness. A

system of reciprocal obligation, thus creating a relational net of interactions stays as

cornerstone of the social, political and familiar system. Hence, trust and identification in

the local political system is high.

The transplantation of the political orientations referred above to the national system

proves therefore unsuccessful. National government practices based on a bureaucratic

apparatus are not consistent with patterns of legitimation and identification proper of the

traditional system, thus the perceived failure of the deceiving State. As outlined in

Almond and Verba analysis (1989 [1963]), political culture and political system are not

inherently two overlapping structure, for the degree of their incongruence determines

efficiency and participation into forms of political action.

The State apparatus results of colonial legacies, which does not mirror local reality nor

African heirloom. The incongruence cause detachment feelings whilst embedding the

spreading of participatory political culture. Cleavages in political orientation are shaped

by urban or rural settlements’ location; the political culture split broaden between the

foreign educated elite and the population at large, as the awareness of the significance

of the government varies sharply with the level of education (Almond & Verba,

1989[1963]).

Within urban inhabitants and educated elite, political culture leans to the participatory

type. In this model, citizens are explicitly oriented toward the system (policy,

administration structures and processes) as a whole and feel an active role of their “self”

in the polity (Almond & Verba, 1989[1963]: 18). In Bissau and Bafata, levels of political

participation are remarkably high and led to the emerge of an articulated civil society, in

The term Irân has no clear definition boundaries. It refers to a metaphysical entity, a spirit, a powerful

force. Despite its otherworldliness, is it regarded part of the physical world, its presence is sensed and it is

appointed as the last cause of positive and negative occurrences.

Misfortune.

Exceptions are foreseen in the case a woman is the head of the family.

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line with African associative tradition. It is precisely in Bissau that protests and upraises

in opposition to governmental actions take place, displaying engagement with political

life in positive (political debates, political parties’ headquarters) and negative (protests,

contestation, disagreement) terms. Moreover, urban citizens and educated élites tend to

experience an identity incongruence: whilst their participatory political culture is

consistent with the formal political system, hardly there will be any identification with

politicians’ little accountability and with the authoritarian measures enacted.

The cleavages between the diverse political subcultures and the incongruence amidst the

political system and the political cultures hinder national legitimacy. Furthermore, the

culture-system mismatch along with the variety of subcultures harden the task for the

national leader to encompass ethnical heterogeneity and attain nationally recognized

legitimacy.

Persistence of religiosity and symbolic power

To achieve legitimation is a tough matter in Guinea Bissau politics: independence

propelled by the State and not by the people (Graça, 2005: 22) thwarted the nation-

building process. Top-down construction of State apparatus and administration structure

did not overcome local and traditional power structures. For the lowering of the

revolutionary legitimacy

accorded to politicians, and lacking foundations for national

legitimacy, it prompted the appeal to myth and symbols tightly rooted in the traditional

religion to foster authority through symbolic power.

An effective alternative to bureaucratic-rational legitimation, symbolic capital provides a

generally valid basis to legitimate national political power. Symbolic capital, inherent in

social and cultural capital, is the leading force par excellence of politics (Bourdieu, 2014:

282; 1989). It is generated by the relation between socio-cultural capital and the agents

whom socialization enables them to see and recognize such assets. In other words, it

implies that the citizens recognize political authorities as endowed with such symbolic

capital.

As a creative, world-making power, symbolic capital provides a base to create legitimacy

among people. Many are the forms in which it displays: a language is for instance a

structured, normative institution, itself constitutive of reality and a form of symbolic

capital.

Symbolic power is not necessarily grounded on proved occurrences nor factual truths. It

preferably relies on manipulation of reality, or rather on a manipulation of reality

accordingly with one’s vision and opinion. Politics is not made by truth, but by opinion,

which ultimately identifies with illusion. Et est, opinion is one of the indispensable bases

of power (Arendt, 1995: 17).

The importance of myths, symbols, values and beliefs does not lay merely in themselves,

but in what they evoke, in the meaning they are given. Myths, symbols and rituals are

an essential feature of all societies; periodical ceremonies are required to state societal

existential needs and moral values with ideological meaning (Fortes & Evans-Pritchard,

Recognition of one’s right to be part of the government due to participation in the fighting struggle for

independence.

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100

1981[1940]: 52-56; Hobsbawm, 2002). Their manipulation to serve political aims play a

key-function since they are a useful tool to enhance legitimization of the political élite

and of the national leadership.

As already noted by Fortes & Evans-Pritchard (1981[1940]: 52), “cohesion and

persistence of African [traditional and national] societies depend largely on ability of all

members to feel their unity and perceive their common interest in myths and symbols”.

Religion views, and henceforth the related values and beliefs, play a major role in people

political outlook.

Moreover, public responsiveness to symbols manipulation is heightened when people are

vulnerable to political-economic distress or when they feel unable to deal with their

problems (Hayward & Dumbuya, 1983). Inglehart and Norris (2011) human security

(secularization) thesis bridges the degree of religiosity with the level of existential

security perceived by the members of a given society. Essential to well-being, human

security designates the state of living free from various risks, dangers and vulnerabilities.

Religiosity refers, in this sense, to the need of an ultimate source to face life-threatening

risks one has to cope with on a daily basis. To believe in a metaphysical being has a

functional role for those living in vulnerable condition, since it helps reducing anxiety for

survival.

The central claim of the modernization thesis is that economic, politic and cultural

changes go together in coherent patterns. There exists a broad range of cultural values

closely linked to a given society’s level of economic development (Inglehart, Basañez &

Moreno, 1998), whilst other factors, such as formal education, mass communication and

the structure of work force, are simply influential on cultural changes patterns.

Nevertheless, religiosity is sensible to other societal elements, as religious culture and

socio-economic development (Inglehart, Basañez & Moreno, 1998). Furthermore,

patterns of cultural changes are highly dependent on a country’s economic stage; in other

words, the political dimension of culture changes along with the economic system.

Political and social expectations of populations living in poorer nations and failed States

are primary bonded to claims for security, rather than on pretences for inclusive,

participative citizenship, or for rights

of the individual. Among these populations,

religiosity persists more strongly, while a systematic erosion of religious practices, values

and beliefs has occurred among the most prosperous strata in rich nations (Inglehart &

Norris, 2011).

Religion, beliefs, myths and symbols within Guinean politics

Hallmark of Guinea Bissau political culture is the syncretism between the political and the

religious spheres. The latter relies the traditional system of beliefs, a heterogeneity of

cosmologies falling under the name of animism. Despite identification with one of the

revealed religions (Christianism, Muslims) present in the country’s threefold religious

system, animist beliefs persist as a cultural substratum for all individuals. Irân is the

main deity; it designates a spirit who can be malign or benevolent. In the traditional

In this sense, rights refer to first and second generations rights, respectively civic and political, and

economic, social and cultural rights.

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system, Irân agreement

is fundamental to legitimize a political role. Moreover, the

approval of the elders and of the dead ancestors is fundamental to legitimize one’s

political function.

At the national level, politicians’ symbolic capital rests upon traditional animist values,

myths and beliefs. Their manipulation is likely to provide the leader with broad legitimacy,

for overcoming the ethnical heterogeneity impasse, yet enhancing the instauration of an

authoritarian regime.

To discern the religious dimension in the Guinean political sphere it was applied discourse

content analysis on semi-structured interviews submitted to a selected corpus. The

analysis is categorical, underpinned by an inductive taxonomy. Units of analysis, then

chartered within indexes and categories, are single words, or couplets of words when

both needed as concept-referent. Concept resembling a peculiar trait of the Guinean

universe will be presented using the original, native word (e.g., irân, djambakus). The

cast follow the presence or absence rule.

The interviews focus on a specific time-frame, ranging from 1980 to 2009. During the

three decades, José Bernardino “Nino” Vieira was ruling or tightly engaged with the

government. Thereupon the analysis aims to pinpoint use and misuse of religious-related

symbolic capital by “Nino” Vieira.

The first cluster (State) includes those elements needed to verify hypothesis on

legitimation. The indexes focus on ethnical heterogeneity, national versus local-

traditional power structures legitimacy, authoritarian practices and feeling toward the

State.

The second cluster (responsiveness to symbolic capital) aims to discern sensitiveness to

the religious-related facets of political practices. Indexes aim to ascertain presence of

myths, symbols and beliefs within politics and their foundation. Furtherly, the following

indexes ascertain which kind of foundations lay underneath the worship of the national

leader.

Finally, the third cluster (africanization of power) registers the presence of items

concerning symbols, belief and religion in the political sphere.

State

The first category deals with the perception of the State among Guinean population. In

the specific, patterns of national leader’s authority legitimization and the presence of

authoritarianism markers are pinpointed.

Irân’s agreement is asked through a traditional ceremony performed by a traditional religious authority,

called baloubeiro or djambakus.

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Table 1

State

Category: Traditional legacies

Indicators

Political-

religious

syncretism

Tribalism

Ethnicity

Traditional

specialists -

counsellors

Informal

court

Source: drafted by the author

The State dimension mingles with the non-State one for including traditional legacies.

Narratives and talks on the State recurrently includes references to ethnicities, customary

law, traditional authorities in the national political system characterization. Ethnicity is

no source of conflict among Guinean people, for it rather is source of pride. The

harmonious ethnic integration among Guinean groups is peculiar. Religious difference is

also respected. Traditional religion specialists (régulos, djambakus, balobeiros, mouros)

are given utter importance also in the political sphere: they form an informal court of

ministers and counsellors of the president. “Nino” Vieira was said to have a real court

living at his residence, the “Palácio”, in Bissau. He used to consult with them on a daily

basis. Each of the specialists had competence over a specific matter, as in a government

asset.

Table 2

State

Category: “Rogue” State

Indicators

Fragility

Democrati

zation

Nacional

unity

Clientelism

Corruption

Civil

society

Source: drafted by the author

At large, the State is characterized by hallmarks of structural fragility. On the one hand,

the interviewees characterized it negatively: a system run by clientelism and corruption

thus engendering general feelings of mistrust. The State and the government authorities

are regarded faraway/distant entities, and on average perceived as ineffective and

helpless, not capable of effective action. The general orientation toward the government

shows it lacks authority and power, as well as it is given little legitimacy. Furthermore,

expectations about the State, democracy, the government and politician in general are

low or not existing. There is no or little sense of identification with the apparatus of the

bureaucratic modern State. On the other hand, there exist a strong sense of national

belonging, to a Bissau-Guinean unity.

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Table 3

State

Category: Legitimation and authoritarianism

Indicators

Revolutionary

legitimation

Head of army

profile

Super-natural

power and

knowledge

Control

Tyrannical

Source: drafted by the author

The characterization of the president “Nino” presents otherwise different traits.

Notwithstanding the over-a-decade long semi-authoritarian regime, “Nino” Vieira is

depicted as a hero. He enjoyed a broad legitimacy among the population; primarily due

to his fame of brave warrior fighting the Portuguese. He was said to be undefeatable,

because he faced several life-threatening situations, but was never harmed, nor were his

soldiers beaten. Military fame provided the ground for the revolutionary legitimacy he

needed to acquire consent. Therefore, his military gestures were coloured with super-

natural features, and myths worshipping him as an immortal man, who enjoyed the

personal support of one of the most powerful irân. He was said to have super natural

powers and knowledge.

Nevertheless, “Nino” was a loved and feared leader, for the tyrannical means of control

he used. When his authority was questioned, “Nino” exercised brutally repressive

measures over his opponents. People feared him due merits on the battlefield, and even

more because of the atrocities he was acting.

Responsiveness to symbolic capital

People’s reactiveness to symbols manipulation become manifest through the analysis of

the figure of the President “Nino” Vieira. His power was grounded on military braveness

and on indigenous animist values. Descriptions of “Nino”, almost resembling a myth-

form, contain recurrent references to supernatural powers and above-human nature, as

well as to extraordinary skills of warrior. For the latter merit, he was/is also referred to

as the “father” of the nation.

“Nino” was worshipped as a heroic, undefeatable general, whom acts in the battlefield

during the independence struggle were super-human. He was also given a warrior

Balanta name, Kabina Fanchamna. He was said to be immortal, because there existed

no weapon that could harm him. This belief was spread within the civil and the military

segments of the society, and explain the vivid circumstances of his death. Moreover, he

was thought to have the support of a special, personal irân, whom favours would accord

him protection and power.

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Table 4

Responsiveness to symbolic capital

Categories

Control and deterrence

Beliefs

indicators

Irân’s

protection

To be or to

have

djambakus

Intelligence

service

To have faith

in irâns

General

beliefs in irâns

Pauteiro/

Source: drafted by the author

Africanization of power

In traditional African political systems, the use of religion-related myths and symbols is

an ordinary feature. Syncretism between religiosity and politic is the norm: roles

frequently overlap, the spirits’ and the ancestors’ approval is fundamental for a leader’s

approval or to sort out any major political decision of the community.

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Traditional religion in Guinea Bissau political culture

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Table 6

Africanization of Power

Category: Symbols

Indicators

Régulo’s

blessing

Axe

Sacred hand

Chicken’s hoof

Muslim

dress

Source: drafted by the author

The government of “Nino” Vieira is pictured rich in symbols recalling the animist

dimension. Among the most common, there appears the blessing of traditional régulos,

the sacred hand, the chicken hoof and the Muslim clothing. Nevertheless, the last

category of the content analysis considers indicators referring to religiosity. It was applied

broadly to all the data set. Analysis outcome shows that the political realm is always

depicted with religious or religious-related features. The latter applies both to local-

traditional authorities and to national leaders, hence the State political system.

Guinean syncretic configuration of power challenges the modern, bureaucratic State

system established after independence, inherited from the Portuguese colonization and

influenced by the worldwide globalization process.

Table 7

Africanization of Power

Category: Religious elements

Indicator

Irân

traditional

animism

syncretism

(traditional)

ceremony

Traditional

specialist

(djambakos,

mouro,

régulo,

balobeiro)

Catholicism

Islamism

Source: drafted by the author

To Western political science, the manipulation of religious myths and symbols within the

political sphere is an abusive means to attain power, legitimation and authority. Albeit,

it is needed to consider the specificities of African systems and its politics legacies.

Presence of mystique markers is common to all African countries, more intensively in

West Africa ones. Hence, presence of symbols of power, religious elements and traditional

specialists in the inner paths of national politics might be the hallmark of a peculiar

configuration of State, for pinpointing the process of africanization of power.

Conclusion

Throughout this paper I aimed to unveil the importance of traditional religion within

Guinea Bissau political culture.

The threefold political structure inherent in Guinea Bissau society plays a major role in

shaping boundaries of the religious dimension. The strength of local and traditional

authorities embeds the power of national ones; prevalence of the parochial political

culture type enhances primacy of the former over the latter. Norms enacted are

underpinned in both socio-political and metaphysical foundations. The level of people’s

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identification and trust in the local or traditional authorities is high, and their legitimacy

is unquestioned.

When tools of the rational-bureaucratic national structure are not consistent with the

desired purposes – legitimacy, power, consent - authorities resort to symbolic capital of

power. Religious capital provides a solid base for strong symbolic power, since: 1)

metaphysic’s beliefs are an utter parcel of symbols, myths and values. As with traditional

chiefs, widely accepted beliefs serve as a foundation for authority and legitimation of the

president authority; 2) although human security is a determinant, though not

deterministic, element to define one’s religiosity, perceptivity to religiosity is higher in

those societies where individuals are more vulnerable to life-threatening risks.

With regard to the postulated hypothesis, the analysis proves that the pervasiveness of

religion-related values, myths and symbols in Guinean politics serves more purposes.

One the one hand, myths worshipping the president “Nino” Vieira supplied him with

outstandingly high levels of legitimation and consent. First, they were a means to

overcome the ethnic traditional legitimation impasse. Second, “Nino” power was

underpinned in a mixture of legitimation based upon mythological fame and fright. Myths

and narratives endowed him with a Übermensch identity, which efficiently provided

deterrence against opposition and rebellion upon the established government. “Nino” is

both known as the heroic general who freed the country from the Portuguese colonizer,

and as the sanguinary president, whom police would pitiless murder any opponents. The

mystique surrounding the figure of the president hence represents the prompt of an

authoritarian political system’s breakthrough.

On the other hand, the employ of religious based symbols by “Nino” Vieira is a tool to

compensate for loose relationships between the government and the citizens.

Nevertheless, such practices are part of traditional African political systems, where the

religious and the political sphere are interdependent. The use of religion-related values

by national leader frames within the political-religious syncretism. The latter is a defining

feature of African political systems.

According to Western tradition, life in plurality takes form of politics, an art underpinned

in human beings’ faculties, whose underneath of power rest upon human beings’ societal

organization. Contrarily, African politics tightly grounds the ultimate foundation of

government on a metaphysical, somehow higher entity. In Guinea Bissau, it is called

irân. Irâns are the real owners of power, whilst traditional, local and – we might affirm –

national authorities are means of its will. In this sense, the religious dimension is

indivisible from the political one, for they inherently imply one another. Transposition of

the use of myths, symbols and religious values into the national political sphere

epitomizes the cornerstone for the africanization of power process, or rather the

construction of a complex State, not underpinned exclusively in the western nation-State

model.

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