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e-ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 12, Nº. 1 (May-October 2021)

THE ROLE OF THE CULTURAL AND CREATIVE INDUSTRIES IN CULTURAL

DIPLOMACY AND SOFT POWER BETWEEN CHINA AND THE EUROPEAN UNION

SILVIA MARÍA GONZÁLEZ FERNÁNDEZ

silviamaria.gonzalez@gmail.com

She holds a Ph.D. in Leisure and Human Development from the University of Deusto (Spain). She

has a Master Degree in Civil and Commercial Law from Xiamen University (China), and one in

Safety and Occupational Health: Occupational Risk Prevention from the Spanish Chamber of

Commerce and in Leisure Project Management: Tourism, Culture and Sports from the University

of Deusto. She has a degree in local Cultural Management from the University of Deusto and

International Law from the Xiamen Academy of International Law. Silvia has written international

articles and has been working and training at the University of Deusto, CiCtourgune, DuPont and

the University of Oviedo. Currently, she is a freelance consultant and researcher in several

European projects (wom@rts and 4HCreat). Her areas of interest are city branding, cultural

diplomacy, cultural policy, cultural management, events management and communication,

tourism management, creative and cultural industries, and cooperation.

Abstract

This paper analyses the different terms used in public diplomacy and the symbiotic relations

that connect the European Union and China through culture, mobility, cultural diplomacy and

soft power. The first part of the article reviews the main treaties and agreements signed

between the two continents in the cultural field and explain mobility as a driver to enhance

relations among countries. The main objective and central axis of the article is to examine the

roles played by the cultural and creative industries in the field of international relations and

diplomacy between the European Union, Spain and China through a case study: an analysis

of Chinese artists in the Spanish residencies. The methodologies used are qualitative and

quantitative analysis through in depth interviews with Chinese artists, a survey to artistic

residencies and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) mapping. The last part of the paper

offers some reflections and conclusions about the correlation between, and relevance of the

cultural and creative industries for cultural diplomacy or mobility between countries, soft

power and the image of a country abroad.

Keywords

Cultural diplomacy, China, Spain, European Union, soft power, cultural and creative industries,

information society

How to cite this article

Férnandez, Silvia María González (2021). The role of the cultural and creative industries in

cultural diplomacy and soft power between China and the European Union. Janus.net, e-

journal of international relations. Vol12, Nº. 1, May-October 2021. Consulted [online] at date

of last visit, https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.12.1.3

Article received on November 21, 2019 and accepted for publication on September 24,

2020

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 12, Nº. 1 (May-October 2021), pp. 31-61

The role of the cultural and creative industries in cultural diplomacy and soft power

between China and the European Union

Silvia María González Fernández

THE ROLE OF THE CULTURAL AND CREATIVE INDUSTRIES IN

CULTURAL DIPLOMACY AND SOFT POWER BETWEEN

CHINA AND THE EUROPEAN UNION

SILVIA MARÍA GONZÁLEZ FERNÁNDEZ

Introduction

Creative industries play an important role in generating, transforming and defining

knowledge (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2018).

Zallo (2003) has mentioned that, from a geographical point of view, territories work in

concentric power of influences. From this perspective, we can understand that big

superpowers coalesce in territories and countries, pulling strings of communication

worldwide while still remembering identity and local people. Spaces that are not

macrocities have the right to remain on the earth with their history, culture, citizens and

traditions, giving their lives a strong foothold. The privatization of public industries and

the deregulation of communication channels have made innovation processes more

competitive, cooperative and globalized. Consequently, a fair society should have

diversity while retaining its own cultural identity and economy. Cultural diversity is as

necessary for the human race as biological diversity is for living organisms. In this sense,

it is humanity’s cultural heritage and should be recognised for present and future

generations (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO],

2001). For these reasons, tolerance, diversity and communications between cultures and

countries are necessary for international cooperation and the maintenance of good

relations among countries.

Culture is linked to cultural diplomacy and soft power because of the need for coexistence

of the different communities, territories and nations in our global village. New

technologies and communications make them closer each day. Analyses of cultural

diplomacy and soft diplomacy give us a tool to improve international relations and

achieve countries’ objectives. In this section, we analyse the concepts of culture, cultural

diplomacy and soft power to understand international relations. These elements

encourage communication and dialogue among countries. Cultural and creative industries

form a mass model that stirs consciences through their communication pattern and

channels. Culture shows realities to the community through histories, storytelling and

performances. It expresses society’s challenges, conflicts and ideologies. We are

immersed in a world where different perspectives, opinions, and persons coexist. In this

sense, the cultural and creative industries are a bridge and node of connection to build

relations among countries and places that reflect societies. Accordingly, soft diplomacy

is a tool to generate admiration, prestige and values of local and national identity. It

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 12, Nº. 1 (May-October 2021), pp. 31-61

The role of the cultural and creative industries in cultural diplomacy and soft power

between China and the European Union

Silvia María González Fernández

offers a path to follow. New technologies have changed the way diplomatic relations are

created and the new diplomacy can now be named “digital diplomacy” because new

channels, actors and audiences have emerged, modifying classical governmental

relations. The cultural substrate gives prestige and influence abroad, driving speedy

cooperation. China is leading the cultural and creative economy to gain prestige and

economic power worldwide and Europe is a pioneer in this industry. For this reason, the

power of intangibles to create friendly and economic relations is often underestimated.

However, cultural and creative industries offer the opportunity to portray the image of a

country abroad and build international relations. Local governments, universities and

other institutions must invest in this strategic area for communication worldwide.

Culture as a tool for dialogue among civilizations

UNESCO defines “culture” as “the set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and

emotional features of society or a social group that encompasses, in addition to art and

literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, value-systems, traditions and beliefs”

(UNESCO, 2001). Culture is a tool to create dialogue among communities, strengthening

social cohesion, social peace and economic development. Cultural diplomacy is the

mechanism used to communicate among different cultures. It implies cultural exchanges

among communities or countries to promote national culture. People use culture as a

cover letter to generate admiration, power, introduce themselves or promote

understanding in foreign countries. Cummings (2003) has described cultural diplomacy

as a set of ideas, information and art exchange among nations and villages that has the

aim of encouraging mutual understanding. For other researchers, (Belanger, 1999; Kim,

2011), cultural diplomacy is studied as a strategy in international communication to

produce impacts on and changes in public opinion in Third World countries. For these

reasons, the concept of culture and public diplomacy is based on the meaning of power.

Joseph Nye (2008) has mixed the concepts of power and culture under the name “soft

power”. Soft power has, for example, the capacity to achieve self-goals and to persuade

others to do something they would not otherwise have done. It conveys persuasion as

well as influence. Cultural diplomacy was created at the end of the Cold War. Hostility

and enmity among countries arise out of misunderstanding and ignorance. The

Netherlands Scientific Council for Government Policy (1987) has stated that the

elimination of these misunderstandings would promote peace worldwide. The conditions

for the generation of soft power in a country are values, ideas, projects related to culture

and the credibility of the country, as demonstrated by its behaviour (Snow, 2009). The

stakeholders involved in this process have always been the states, but new information

and communications technologies (ICTs) have brought in other non-governmental actors

such as universities, scientific organizations, cultural institutions, think tanks,

associations, non-governmental organizations, the business sector, artists, and civil

societies.

Anholt (2010) has argued that New Public Diplomacy is managed by the four strategic

areas of governance, innovation, competitiveness and internationalization. All these

areas are responsible for the holistic management of a country. According to this expert,

public diplomacy has changed because communications and networks have changed.

Channels and audiences have therefore changed in the international scene. In this sense,

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 12, Nº. 1 (May-October 2021), pp. 31-61

The role of the cultural and creative industries in cultural diplomacy and soft power

between China and the European Union

Silvia María González Fernández

communication is essential. People and entities are in charge of weaving new public

diplomacy, people-to-people interaction (civil diplomacy) and cultural exchanges

between the educational government and the citizens. Manfredi (2012) has noted that a

synergetic relation arises among these three concepts that involve all the stakeholders,

coordinated by an international country branding strategy. Cultural exchange involves

not only the culture of a country, region or city, but also its knowledge, science, research

and development, thoughts and values. It is also the construction of networking among

all the society’s stakeholders and the coordination of all the actors inside and outside the

country. Estay Rodríguez (2009) has underlined that soft power offers an indirect method

to achieve an international goal through prestige, values, prosperity and economy. It

fosters cooperation in third countries and helps countries to join forces and develop

together. China’s Confucius Institute is putting its efforts into cultural issues on an

ideological basis that involves Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. Mejía Mena (2015)

has noted that all these efforts are focused on reflecting world culture, image and power

to maintain peace among states. Factors such as reputation, tourist attractions, musical

productions, cinema, fashion exports, quality of life, gastronomy, foreign investment and

values (including democracy, freedom, social mobility and foreign policy) help to

reinforce power against other countries. Estay Rodriguez (2009) mentions that the

characteristics of soft power are culture, democracy, language, aid and cooperation,

cinema production and science. The soft power of a country is reflected by the credibility

and prestige of its institutions and brands. In this line, new public diplomacy is a diffuse

term. It may be renamed as digital diplomacy. Digital diplomacy is a new term that has

emerged with new ICTs as well as social media channels like Twitter and Facebook

(Pohan, Pohan,&Savitri, 2016) that have the power to reach different audiences and

publics. According to Park, Chung, and Park (2019), big data is an important tool to

measure and evaluate social media influence on diplomatic issues. Currently, all the

stakeholders involved in country branding management are responsible for cultural and

public diplomacy. They can influence and participate in national decisions. Cultural and

creative industries have an important influence on the diffusion and generation of new

audiences. Communicative processes become more horizontal and therefore have an

active role in diplomatic relations and soft diplomacy. Al-Muftah, Weerakkody, Rana,

Sivarajah, and Irani (2018) argued that the term “e-diplomacy” was similar to “digital

diplomacy” and that ICTs constitute a basic tool to promote transparency and open

government, reduce operational complexity and enhance interactions among countries.

In this sense, culture and tourism are synergistic concepts that engage communities to

define their identities (Baranowski et al., 2019) and promote them abroad. Cultural

diplomacy is channelled by different agents and institutions, and the actors involved are

diverse. In most countries, cultural diplomacy is conducted by embassies because they

have a worldwide network and can work quickly. However, nowadays, culture is managed

by regional governments, cities and councils, so the creative sector works with many

different channels and actors, not only through embassies. Social networks are vital for

public diplomacy and digital diplomacy uses them to promote a country’s image abroad.

The same system is also an element for information dissemination, and is heavily used

for immediate aspects, consular alerts and communication between consulates. We have

all the tools to live in a global world, but culture also works locally. Local events are

published locally.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 12, Nº. 1 (May-October 2021), pp. 31-61

The role of the cultural and creative industries in cultural diplomacy and soft power

between China and the European Union

Silvia María González Fernández

In Europe, we can highlight aspects such as culture, language, art, literature, music,

fashion and gastronomy as European values. Additional elements influence political

power, such as investment in foreign culture politics and developing public democracy,

languages, the Nobel Prize in Literature, tourism, and quality of life. In this sense, public

debate on image policy is needed, taking into account the role of soft power and the real

perceptions that citizens have of their country.

Europe and China: Major Cultural Challenges

Nye (2008) underlines that Europe’s soft power tool gives it an extraordinary capacity to

pose challenges. The European Union and China established diplomatic relations in

1975,operating through the European Union and the China Treaty of Commerce and

Cooperation, ratified in 1985 (Morgan & Tuijnman, 2009), and seven other legally binding

treaties (European Commission, 2012). China has also been developing its regulations

and legislation since becoming a member of the Worldwide Trade Organization in 2001

(WTO, 2013).

China was one of the key players in the political construction documented by the Diversity

of the Cultural Expressions Convention adopted by UNESCO in 2005 and dedicated to

international recognition of the specific functions of cultural goods and services. This

convention was also adopted to legitimize states’ rights to adopt policies in the cultural

and creative sectors (Aylett, 2010).

There are many opportunities for investment, particularly with social media trends, but

there are still many cross-cultural misunderstandings (EU SME Centre 2014). Europe

wants to participate in the Chinese market but both parties must maintain a productive

dialogue to support the development and promotion of the cultural and creative industries

in both markets. Cultural exchanges between Europe and China are based on bilateral

cooperation agreements. The cultural policies for the member states of the European

Union are managed locally by a political network that connects the political affairs, culture

and trade ministries of both governments. Currently, a recent report of the European

Commission mentions some actions to strength ties through strategic cooperation. “The

EU's and China's shared commitments and interest in global sustainable development

and the 2030 Agenda present opportunities for closer cooperation, including in third

countries. There is a real need to partner up and deliver the significant resources needed

to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals”. (European Commission, 2019:2).

Table 1 - Cooperation and cultural agreements between the European Union and China.

YEAR/PLACE

ORGANISM

DOCUMENT

2006

The Council of International Affairs

(Brussels).

Cooperation agreement with China to

promote stability with Asia, including

ASEAN and ASEM.

2008. Beijing

2009. Copenhagen

2010.Shanghai

European Union National Institutes for

Culture (EUNIC) China.

Third European–Chinese dialogue on

Culture.

2011.Beijing

Ministry of Trade and Culture, supported

by the EU–China Trade Project (2)

(EUCPT 2).

Round Table.

2011.Shenzhen

EU–China trade in creative services.

Trade conference.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 12, Nº. 1 (May-October 2021), pp. 31-61

The role of the cultural and creative industries in cultural diplomacy and soft power

between China and the European Union

Silvia María González Fernández

2012. Chengdu

European Commission and Guanghua

Foundation.

EU–China Youth Policy Dialogue.

2012. Beijing

EU–China. European Commission and

Ministry of China.

EU–China High-Level People to People

Dialogue.

2012. Beijing

DG Education and Culture, European

Commission and Ministry of Chinese

culture.

High-level forum

2013.

The 16th EU-China Summit.

Strategic programme for cultural

cooperation.

2013. Hangzhou

International Congress on Culture for

Sustainable Development.

Document about culture and

development issues.

2015

EU–China Summit 2015 Joint Statement.

EU–China cooperation

2019. Brussels

EU–China Summit Joint Statement.

Bilateral relations

Others: European Agenda for Culture, 2007; Media Mundus; Report of the European Parliament in 2009, Green

Paper prepared in 2010.

Source: Author’s own (2019)

Regarding cultural and creative industries by subsectors, there are a few treaties between

both continents:

We highlight the following:

- “Beijing Treaty on audio-visual performances”. This treaty is designed to help audio-

visual performers – television and film actors, musicians, dancers, and others – many

of whom live from job to job in precarious economic circumstances. The Treaty

expands audio-visual workers’ performance-related rights, which can translate into

increased payments from retransmission – an especially critical benefit as many new

productions are halted due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It was signed in April 2020.

- The "EU-China Youth Music & Art Festival 2019" signed on 27 July 2019 in Zandhoven,

in which nearly 100 young people and folk artists from Belgium and China gathered

for musical performances.

Among the main European events held in China that reflect the diversity and identity of

the different member countries, the following stand out (Smits, 2014): Europe Street

(2005); EU Film Festivals (2005); European Union Youth Orchestra (EUYO) Concert in

Beijing (2008); EU Olympic Photo Exhibition (2008); EU Extravaganza (2009);

Encounters with Europe (2010); Photo Book (2010); EU at Shanghai Expo (2010); EU–

China Year of Youth (2011); EU Open Days (celebrated annually since 2011); Europe in

my Heart ‘Children's Art Exhibition’ (2011); EU–China Year of Intercultural Dialogue

(2012); EU–China Love Links (2012); EU–China People-to-People photo exhibition and

book (2012); EU–China Dream Seekers (2013); a Taste of Europe conference celebrated

in Beijing in 2013; European Wine and Food Festival (2013); China in my Dreams (2013);

Online Film Festival (2012 and 2014); The European culture street festival held in Beijing

in 2019 and the EU-China Youth Music & Arts Festival 2019 in Belgium mentioned in the

previous paragraph.

Available at: https://www.natlawreview.com/article/beijing-treaty-audiovisual-performances-comes-

force-china-today-april-28-2020

Available at: Further information in http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019 07/28/c_138265065.htm

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 12, Nº. 1 (May-October 2021), pp. 31-61

The role of the cultural and creative industries in cultural diplomacy and soft power

between China and the European Union

Silvia María González Fernández

Negotiations with Spain

China and Spain established diplomatic relations in 1973. Later, Spain carried out the

Asia-Pacific Plan to address the necessity to establish a strategic plan. This plan was put

into a practice from 2005 to 2008 to strength the Spanish presence in Asia through

bilateral dialogue, travel and the mobility of high diplomatic staff.

In 2008-2012, a scientific and technology cooperation agreement was signed between

Spain and China. Both countries have promoted student exchanges. The main pacts

include:

- Cultural, educational and scientific cooperation agreement (7

April 1981).

- Economy and Industrial development and cooperation agreement (15

November

1984).

- Basic agreement for scientific and technology cooperation. (5

September 1985).

- Air and civil transport agreement to avoid double taxation and prevent tax leakage

(22

November 1990).

- Mutual stimulus agreement for investment and its protection (6

February 1992).

- Treaty on judicial assistance in civil and commercial matters (5

May 1992).

- Intergovernmental cooperation agreement to punish organized crime (25

June

2000).

- Joint declaration between the People´s Republic of China and the Kingdom of Spain

(15

November 2005).

- In 2007, the year of China in Spain was celebrated.

- On 25 September 2014, a film co-production agreement was signed between the

governments of Spain and China.

- In November 2015, the Guangdong Dance Festival, an event that emerged in 2004 in

Guangzhou was celebrated. This was one of the objectives set by AC/E Asia Pacific

2015-2016.

- On 29 January, Íñigo Méndez de Vigo, Minister of Education, Culture and Sports,

Spain, and Luo Shugang, China, signed a cultural agreement for the period 2018-2021

in the following sectors: videogames, visual arts, cinema, editorial, museums and

Available at:

https://www.accioncultural.es/media/Default%20Files/activ/2015/grafica/AsiaPacifico_ACE.pdf

Available at: http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/wps/wcm/connect/70d1270b-1f68-44e2-8533-

b273036d2d0d/Informe-Elcano-24-Relaciones-Espana-China.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=70d1270b-

1f68-44e2-8533-b273036d2d0d

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 12, Nº. 1 (May-October 2021), pp. 31-61

The role of the cultural and creative industries in cultural diplomacy and soft power

between China and the European Union

Silvia María González Fernández

The Role of the Cultural and Creative Industries in Diplomatic Relations

between China, Europe and Spain

Cultural and creative industries play an important role. They have the power to transform

and define knowledge as well as to develop global economy. The United Nations

Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD, 2013) has stated that, between 2002

and 2011, trade in creative and cultural goods increased by around 8.8%. Cultural and

creative industries have the potential to stimulate the economy, create jobs, support

innovation and entrepreneurship, help urban and rural regeneration and promote trade.

The definition of cultural and creative industries has arisen in the fields of creative

economy and intellectual property. Creativity is a driver for social and individual

development as well as an important connector for competitive economic growth in the

knowledge economy (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD],

2018).

Creative industries in China

Li Shu-sheng (2012) underlines that China have used the term “cultural industry” in the

book “Dialectic of Enlightenment”, published in Amsterdam in 1947. It later appeared in

the Communist Party of China (CPC) Central Committee’s central Government

recommendations, “The Tenth Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social

Development” in October 2000. In 2003, the Ministry of Culture promoted support to

cultural industries for the development of this term as “lucrative activities for the

production of cultural goods and the cultural offer of services” (Zhu Zhenming, 2015).

The current definition recognizes nine creative sectors: culture and arts; press and

publications, radio, television and cinema; software services, grids and computers;

expositions; trade of art; design services; entertainment; and other support services.

Both concepts (cultural and creative industries) are used interchangeably. China is

leading the creative economy. The National Bureau of Statistics of China (2008) reported

that, in 2008, the cultural and creative industries contributed 50.32 billion Euros of added

value and 1.48% of the employment.

China has undergone spectacular development in the creative economy since the Central

Government positioned this industry as a key area for strategic development. There has

been a change in the political orientation from “made in China” to “created in China”.

Furthermore, the Ministry of Culture aims to build between five and ten brands in the

entertainment industry. UNESCO (2013) has underlined that Beijing is internationally

recognized for its design sector. It has employed 250,000 persons and contributes more

than 160.000 million RMB to the economy. The benefits of the cultural industry have

increased by 25.8% and represent 2.75% of the gross domestic product (GDP). Beijing’s

2016 goal was to increase the added value of the entertainment industry.

Smits (2014) noted that China has the following infrastructure for cultural issues in

foreign countries:

− Eighty cultural departments in their embassies.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 12, Nº. 1 (May-October 2021), pp. 31-61

The role of the cultural and creative industries in cultural diplomacy and soft power

between China and the European Union

Silvia María González Fernández

− Fourteen cultural centres in China. The Culture Minister announced that there would

be 50 centres by 2020, including one in Brussels, next to the Directorate General for

Education and Culture (DG EAC) of the European Commission, planned for the end of

2014.

− More than 400 centres of the Confucius Institute

− Fifteen representative offices of the China Council for the Promotion of International

Trade (CCPIT).

Cities have their own policies for the development of cultural exchanges with foreign

countries. The public companies that manage the art and craft groups are involved in

foreign cultural missions. Chinese art has expanded internationally and has created

trends in Europe, adapting to new political and economic needs. For the European

market, China is an important objective, offering a wide range of exhibitions and a wide

exchange between professionals in this field. Private and foreign agencies represent

important channels to promote international activities in visual arts.

The art world is still adapting to the new market demand. There is a deficit in highly-

qualified job holders with management and ICT experience. Sub-sectors of the creative

industries are looking for European collaboration in this field. The European Government

is eager to exchange cultural and creative goods in China. Insofar as the topics are not

sensitive, censorship is not the main handicap (European Parliament, 2009). Since old

times, art has been used as a tool for diplomacy. Cultural and creative industries are

important connectors for cultural relations and for a country’s image through soft

diplomacy. Public diplomacy is focused on projecting a country’s identity with the aim of

strengthening international relations (Melissen, 2005). Trends in this field concentrate

culture and creative industries in small groups, clusters or niches, to be published

internationally and artists’ mobility constitute a key driver for communication among

countries and a tool for mutual understanding.

Cultural and creative industries in Europe

Cultural and creative sectors are at the heart of the European Union’s Creative Europe

programme. Creative industries have been also ranked by UNCTAD (2013) as a main

resource to overcome worldwide depression. The definition of the term “cultural and

creative economy” has been controversial, giving rise to open and constructive debates

as to the activities that can be described as cultural and creative industries and the roles

they perform in the urban regeneration process and in regional development (Mazilu,

2018). Each country, each society, has a unique model of cultural and creative industries

that depends on its culture, values and local identity. Cultural and creative industries

belong to the creative economy that combines economy, culture and technology.

There are six European models of creative industries, covering a wide range of cultural

and creative activities: UNCTAD; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO);

the United Kingdom Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS); UNESCO;

the concentric circles model and the symbolic text model. The concentric circles (Throsby)

model of culture and creative industries covers a wide range of activities: fine arts;

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 12, Nº. 1 (May-October 2021), pp. 31-61

The role of the cultural and creative industries in cultural diplomacy and soft power

between China and the European Union

Silvia María González Fernández

music; scenic and visual arts; cinema, radio and television; museums and libraries;

editorial industries; audio recording; heritage services; video games; and other activities

related to publicity, architecture, design and fashion design. This model has inspired the

2006 European Commission Report “The Economy of Culture in Europe” (KEA, 2006).

Following this, the cultural economy has begun to gain relevance in political agendas,

including the Lisbon Treaty and the UNESCO Convention on Cultural Diversity, ratified by

Germany in February 2007. The European Year for Creativity and Innovation was

designated for 2009 and new Council conclusions were published in this context. We can

also mention the Cultural and Creative Cities Monitor (CCCM). It explains that a culture-

based development approach should be focused not only on a prosperous creative

economy but particularly on a socially and culturally inclusive environment. This approach

was encouraged by the European Commission itself in the New European Agenda for

Culture 2018 (Montalto et al., 2019). Cultural and creative industries reach an annual

income of €535.9 billion, involve more than 7 million workers, and account for 4.2% of

the GDP, becoming an important source of intangible resources (Ernst & Young, 2014).

Cultural and Creative Industries in Spain

It is considered that 3, 3% of the economy belongs to the cultural and creative industries

linked to intellectual property according to the Spanish satellite account. It involves more

than 687.200 people and over 118.407 companies.

Boix et al. (2012) mentions that the

most creative cities in Spain are Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Bilbao, Sevilla and Santiago

de Compostela.

However, not only cultural and creative industries are responsible for promoting a country

abroad. Public institutions and governments are the main agents.

Some Spanish organizations and institutions guarantee culture and communication

abroad. The launch of the renewal of the image of Spain is relatively recent, with the

creation of the following organizations and institutions:

− In 1982, the National Institute for Export Promotion (INFE) was created, a predecessor

of the current ICEX, which changed its name in 2012 by Royal Decree Law 20/2012.

− In the 1990s, the Cervantes Institute, the Casa de América and the Spanish Language

Congresses were established. When the economy opens it is necessary to invest

externally.

− In 1921, the Office of Cultural Relations was built.

− In 1926, the Board of Cultural Relations, the Institute of Hispanic Culture and the

foundation of the Houses of Spain were built.

− In 1992, several important events took place: The V Centenary of the Discovery of

America, Madrid headquarters of the Cultural Capital of Europe and world events such

as the Barcelona Olympics and the Seville EXPO, which promoted the image of Spain

in the international arena. The image of the country has been positioned thanks to

international events like these and efforts have been made to alleviate the stereotypes

Available at: http://www.culturaydeporte.gob.es/dam/jcr:87dfd2bb-b456-40f3-b164-

83f850596654/memoria-politicas-fomento-icc-2019.pdf

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e-ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 12, Nº. 1 (May-October 2021), pp. 31-61

The role of the cultural and creative industries in cultural diplomacy and soft power

between China and the European Union

Silvia María González Fernández

of «fiesta», «bulls», «siesta» and «vulgarity» that may be present in the culture of

Spain, but not at a general level (Prieto, 2013). This makes it desirable to show Spain

as a free, modern country of democracy and openness. It is an objective that has been

pursued over time and that can be measured in different studies carried out by the

Observatory of the Image of Spain (OIE) and by the Reputation Institute.

− In 1999, with the establishment of the Forum of Renowned Spanish Brands, the most

prestigious Spanish brands became the conductors of Made in Spain.

− Around the year 2000, institutions were formed to carry out cultural diplomacy actions

such as the Carolina Foundation, the SEACEX (State Society for Foreign Cultural

Action), the SECC (State Society for Cultural Commemorations) or the SEE (State

Society for International Exhibitions) and the focus is on coordinating the efforts of

private companies and institutions to export an image of the country, for which the

Spain Brand is created (Marco and Otero, 2010).

− In 2002, the Elcano Royal Institute established the Permanent Observatory of the

Foreign Image of Spain (OPIEX), which brings together efforts in the analysis,

collection and dissemination of information for the Spain Brand.

− In 2010, several efforts were made by the Council of Ministers to merge the three

state societies for cultural promotion abroad under the ministries of Culture and

Foreign Affairs and Cooperation: the State Society for Cultural Commemorations

(SECC), the Society State for Foreign Cultural Action (SEACEX) and the State Society

for International Exhibitions (SEEI). Thus, Acción Cultural Española (AC/E) was

created to shape a "reinforced strategy for the promotion of Spanish culture abroad".

− In July 2012, Santiago de Mora-Figueroa y Williams, Marquis of Tamarón, was

appointed Spanish Ambassador for Cultural Diplomacy.

− At the end of 2012, the Image of Spain Observatory and the Spain Brand Council were

created with the aim of revitalizing the Spain Brand. Therefore, the perception of the

image of Spain from a cultural perspective is managed by different entities such as

the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation, through the General Directorate of

Cultural and Scientific Relations, the Spanish Agency for International Development

Cooperation (AECID), the state society Acción Cultural Española (AC/ E) dependent

on the Sub-directorate General for Foreign Promotion of Culture of the Secretary of

State for Culture, Turespaña, ICEX and the Cervantes Institute, in addition to regional

and local representations abroad, private entities, museums, foundations, and

business structures.

Currently, the identity of a country is formed through its cultural and creative industries

and the citizens that compose it, companies and by the influences made abroad. The

prestige of a country is linked to safety, quality of life, culture..., the easier to sell

products abroad and the facilities it has for its companies to internationalize. For this

reason, the image of a country is a basic element for its external relations. The Ministry

of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation (MAEC) leads these promotional actions, together with

organizations such as the Carolina Foundation, the Elcano Royal Institute, Turespaña,

ICEX, Spanish Cultural Action, the Forum of Renowned Spanish Brands (FMRE), the

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The role of the cultural and creative industries in cultural diplomacy and soft power

between China and the European Union

Silvia María González Fernández

Spanish patent office and brands, the Cervantes Institute and diplomatic representations,

as well as different programmes like PICE (ACE) or the white book of cultural and creative

industries made by some autonomous communities. All these bodies and institutions are

responsible for coordinating agreements, treaties, activities and programmes that project

Spain’s image through the cultural and creative industries.

Case study: an example case of Chinese artists in the Spanish

residencies

Artists travelling from China to the European Union (or from the European Union to China)

must overcome administrative barriers and communications censorship as well as

problems with taxation, geographical frontiers and language barriers.

In the following paragraph we explain some reasons why it is required to transcend

cultural barriers with the aim of fostering long-term relationships:

One of the main challenges is the communication and social media channels. Social

networks influence the process of democratisation and all citizens may express

themselves without fear of retaliation. However, often these information channels are

managed by the institutions and information can be biased, manipulated or misleading.

Technology has allowed Chinese internet consumers to change gradually from being

merely an audience to becoming speakers. They have managed to open an increasing

number of channels against state censorship. Blogs and micro-blogs play a key role in

transferring information to a global audience (Tang 2014).

In this line, Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights assures the right to

free information (Macovei, 2014). The recommendation of UNESCO in 1980 underlines

that UNESCO member states are obliged to protect, help and defend artists and the

freedom of creation. Countries must do everything that is necessary to stimulate artistic

creativity and talent, specifically by adopting measures to assure artistic freedom. In

March 2018, the UN Special Rapporteur on cultural rights presented the “Report of the

Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights (UN Human Rights Council 2018). The

UNESCO instruments and Recommendation (1980) about the status of artists is

recognised, for example, in the UNESCO convention (2005) on the protection and

promotion of the diversity of cultural expressions. The report underlines that artists

should enjoy all the rights provided by international and national human rights laws,

specifically the freedom of expression, information and communication.

In a report of 19 April 2005, the UN held that freedom of opinion and expression is an

essential instrument for effective participation in democratic life and a clear indicator of

the level of effective protection of fundamental rights (UN Commission on Human Rights,

2005). Gellner (1988) mentioned that China desires to open up to the modern world.

China´s bureaucracy has started an adaptation process in which the citizen is gaining

more power over decisions taken in the country. Since then, the opening of economic

policy has generated a political class linked to political and civic participation in public

management, although the dynamics are slow. Another challenge is the visa and work

permit requirements, which can seriously impede the mobility of artists in both short and

long terms. Sometimes, the execution time for the visa is short and renewing it is quite

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The role of the cultural and creative industries in cultural diplomacy and soft power

between China and the European Union

Silvia María González Fernández

expensive. For example, Article 10 of EU Directive 2004/38/EC obliges family members

of EU nationals (if they do not belong to any European member state) to obtain a

resident’s card if they wish to stay in Europe for longer than three months (European

Parliament and Council, 2004). In Resolution 2006/2249 (INI) on the social status of

artists, the European Parliament (2007) solved some visa problems, confirming that

artists with short-term contracts have serious problems in satisfying the general

conditions to get visas and work permits. The Schengen visa, one of the solutions

proposed in Resolution 2006/2249 (INI) for stays of no longer than 3 months, is an

authorisation designed for the Schengen member states. It offers a scheduled residence

aligned to the length of stay (European Parliament 2007). The problems described above

are not the most important, as the main bureaucratic problem for mobility is social

security. The next section covers the main problems with global taxes and describes how

the European Union and China have dealt with this situation. It explains people’s main

liabilities in terms of social security and taxation. Social security and taxation are another

complex requirements. In 1951, bilateral social security cooperation between China and

other countries was implemented with a regulation and the main problems of social

security internationalisation increased. Before then, there were few foreigners in China

and the government had not approved any special regulations. In 1999, a provisional

rule about social security collection was drawn up that established the basic old-age

pension in China. This measure enabled foreigners to take benefits within the Chinese

system (Wang and Wei, 2009). Therefore, foreign companies must also pay social

security obligations and double taxation. This double taxation began to generate

problems with working visas.

China resolved this conflict with an agreement that came into force in April 2002 and

solved the problems of double taxation. Among the member states of the European

Union, there are many differences in the taxation systems. The legislation gives each

member state the freedom to design its own tax system and provide funds to artists.

However, member states are subordinated to the interpretation of bilateral treaties, and

double taxation depends on whether or not the beneficiary is a resident (European

Agenda for Culture, 2014).

Besides bureaucracy and the geographical separation, many cultural and linguistic

differences between China and Europe present obstacles to mobility.

Other elements that can affect the decision to take up a residency include: the political

stability of the destination; the prestige of the university or the city; cosmopolitanism;

and economic prosperity. The artist always wants professional success, and international

visibility and reputation are also key elements to keep in mind.

Mobility through artistic residencies

In the previous section, we have analysed the main barriers that artists have to overcome

when they travel abroad to work. The mobility programmes of the artistic residencies

have become an intrinsic factor in artists’ professional careers because they offer an

important financial source and a learning process as well as the main elements of

contemporary art. A participating artist helps understanding, builds bridges, contributes

to cultural diversity and generates ideas to develop new projects. Residencies promote

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The role of the cultural and creative industries in cultural diplomacy and soft power

between China and the European Union

Silvia María González Fernández

understanding and cooperation among countries, offering artists the opportunity to work

with different resources and interdisciplinary teams. They offer accommodation, learning

programmes, workspaces, facilities, artistic productions and presentations. From time to

time, artists can work associatively with other creative professionals such as scientists

or writers. Artistic residencies culminate with an exhibition, workshop or collaboration,

although sometimes they finish without results (European Agenda for Culture, 2014).

Artistic residencies are an inspirational source of knowledge. Curators, contemporary

artists and other cultural professionals join their skills and ideas together to build

projects. This cooperation encourages the materialisation of ideas. Artistic residencies

work together with private cultural small and medium enterprises, (SMEs), state-owned

enterprises (SOEs), museums, theatres and foundations. The aim is to help artists to be

visible, learn new techniques and establish new contacts as they live an international and

exceptional experience (Acción Cultural, n.d.). Res Artis (nd) is a worldwide artistic

residencies network that exists to conceptualise and ensure the success of the artistic

residency in society. Res Artis defined artistic residency as an organised space of time

and resources; a driving force in the creative process; responsible for experimentation,

exchange and dialogue; a linker between local and global; relevant to the artistic

ecosystem; a developer of connections among non-artistic fields, subjects and sectors;

a driver of intercultural understanding and the development of skills; a creator of

professional and individual opportunities; a safe refuge for global mobility; a way of

contributing to cultural policies and diplomacy; Artistic centres are host destinations for

managers, curators, sponsors and merchants. Many European cities are, or believe in

being, partners of these residency programmes. Public authorities understand the

positive aspects of artistic residencies; they contribute to the strengthening of a city’s

arts and culture, generating more cultural options to appeal to tourists and citizens. They

assist social progress because they help to regenerate impaired spaces and potentially

give them new applications, such as Zorrotzaurre in Bilbao. The participation of a

community in a city usually produces creative solutions of conflicts, decreasing gaps and

reducing social conflict behaviours. Citizen participation produces integration and

intercultural dialogue, creating open “creative cities” (Florida, 2002).

Artistic residencies are centres where the artist can take steps towards professional

promotion, achieve new audiences, learn new techniques, make contacts and set up new

products and ideas to expand their performances.

The residency host also benefits because this kind of programme provides prestige to the

institution. Residencies can attract international profiles, making contacts and finding

different financial sources. Consequently, they contribute to cultural diplomacy because

they attract investment, generate commerce and boost the city. Artistic residencies

provide cultural enrichment, being nodes of the creative process. Community

participation in events, exhibitions and conferences improves the quality of citizens’ lives

through cultural interactions and performances. Many artistic projects trigger a positive

impact in the city, driving business activity because the local agents take part. When a

city behaves well towards an artist, the artist engages with it, publishing and

communicating its history, its knowledge and the amiability of its population. In this way,

the artist becomes a city brand ambassador.

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The role of the cultural and creative industries in cultural diplomacy and soft power

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Silvia María González Fernández

Often, artists-in-residence carry out programmes for young audiences, staging

performances, events or demonstrations. Sometimes they run live performances for local

and international audiences. Some residencies broadcast and postcast events, putting

them on the air. Bulletins and blogs give rise to forums and debates among artists and

professionals from other fields.

In the artistic residency scene, a complex network of elements, including artists,

sponsors, audiences, promoters, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), associations,

professors, workshops, events and exhibitions, business and local entrepreneurs, art

institutions, schools, theatres, museums, cultural foundations, scientists, journalists, art

groups, curators and many other institutions get involved in platforms, give funds and

establish international contacts. Networking is a relevant factor in the residency sphere

as it helps to foster positive aspects of the experience (European Agenda for Culture,

2014). Networks offer tangible and intangible benefits to all the stakeholders involved in

the project. In the short term, they induce improvements in the research and

communication of a project. In the long term, they offer platforms that afford

communication between artists working in the same field. They promote connections and

synergies with other sectors. Importantly, they improve cooperation among local art

institutions, art schools and the local community.

Example of Chinese creative mobility in Spanish residencies:

identification and analysis of the Spanish artistic residencies that hosted

Chinese artists

This section describes the design of a Geographical Information System (GIS) map to

reflect the nature of the Spanish artistic residencies that have been participating in art

programmes with China. The map was developed from the supply point of view and used

factors like heat map and GIS maps to describe the residencies situated in urban or rural

areas.

The map’s delineation of the role of the residencies reflects the definition of the artistic

residency as a creative space for engagement and exchange of values, as well as for

innovation through art and new technologies (Ortega, 2008). Deep research of the artistic

residencies in Spain allows us to analyse and develop a diagnosis of the current situation.

The peaks in the graph (figure 1) represent the cities with the largest conglomerations

of artistic residencies: Barcelona; Madrid; Bilbao; and Valencia. Most artistic residencies

are in urban areas and cover a wide range of disciplines, including painting, sculpture,

dance, fine arts, fashion, cinema, radio, software, music, literature, architecture and

scientific research.

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The role of the cultural and creative industries in cultural diplomacy and soft power

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Silvia María González Fernández

Figure 1 - Cluster analysis of the artistic residencies in Spain by cities

Source: Author’s own, 2017

The map in figure 2 shows an analysis of the ratio of Spanish artistic residencies in rural

areas to those in urban areas – 71% urban and 29% rural. They cluster in urban areas

because grouping residencies there makes them competitive. They benefit from

economies of scale. On the other hand, art and creativity in rural areas promote and

develop village economies.

Figure 2 shows that Cataluña is the community with the most urban residencies. Madrid

is second. The Basque country and Andalucía hold third and fourth positions, with almost

half of the rural residencies. Other communities, such as Valencia, Galicia, Asturias,

Canarias, Baleares, Castilla and León, Extremadura and Murcia, are also highlighted.

Figure 2 and 3. GIS map with the current situation of the artistic residencies

Source: Author’s own, 2017

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The role of the cultural and creative industries in cultural diplomacy and soft power

between China and the European Union

Silvia María González Fernández

The GIS map in figure 3 reflects the current situation of the artistic residencies in Spain.

It takes its information from a database of all the European networks, including Res Artis,

Transartis, Localizarte, Artmotile and Danza Guía. Altogether, these networks operate

153 Spanish residencies. Barcelona hosts 32 of these (red circles show overlaps), more

than twice the number in Madrid. We can conclude that its culture makes Barcelona the

most creative city in Spain. This number does not account for the surrounding cities such

as Sant Antoni de Vilamajor, Avinyón, Lloréns, Sant Pére de Vilamajor and Terrasa. The

second most artistic city is Madrid, with 19 artistic residencies. Next come Bilbao with

seven and Valencia with five. Other middle-sized cities with strong potential are Málaga

(two artistic residencies) and Cádiz (three), Mallorca, Sabadell, Santa Cruz de Tenerife

and Granada.

Figure 4 reflects the current situation of artistic residencies in Spain. The heat map uses

colours to show aggregations of artistic residencies, the yellow areas being the most

concentrated and therefore the most artistic. As we can see, Barcelona is the most artistic

city, with Madrid second and Bilbao third. Areas such as Levante, Asturias and Cádiz have

the most artistic concentrations.

Figure 4. Heat map of artistic residencies

Source: Author’s own 2017

We have conducted a survey to the whole universe of residencies with three simple

questions to research three basic questions (number of residents since 2010, total

number of international residents and total number of residents from other continents.

We have obtained 30 responses with a confidence interval of 90 and a margin of error of

15%. We have obtained the following results:

The Graphic shows the following percentages of artists: 25% of residencies have lodged

more than 620 artists in their centres and 26% between 250 and 350 residents. The

minor’s percentages (5% and 10%) are the residencies that have hosted less than 50

residents since 2010.

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The role of the cultural and creative industries in cultural diplomacy and soft power

between China and the European Union

Silvia María González Fernández

Figure 5. Percentage of total residents.

Source: Author’s own, 2019

The following chart describes the difference between the foreigners that have enjoyed a

stay in Spanish residencies and the foreigners from outside Europe that have stayed in

the Spanish residencies.

Figure 6. Percentage of foreigners and foreigners from other continents.

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%

0 a 20

21 a 40

41 a 60

61 a 80

Between 80 and 120

More than 120

Proportion of foreigners outside the European Union Proportion of foreigners

Source: Author’s own, 2019

25%

15%

10%

20%

10%

0-20 21-40 41-60 61-80 80-120 120-250 250-350 350-500 >500

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The role of the cultural and creative industries in cultural diplomacy and soft power

between China and the European Union

Silvia María González Fernández

The bar chart shows that almost 60% of the artists’ residencies have lodged few

foreigners from outside the EU. It makes sense because foreigners from outside the

European Union have higher costs (visa, transport, and other barriers…). However, we

can see that the total number of artists is increasing, and the percentage of foreigner

residents from the European Union is rising too. More than 30% of residencies hosted

more than 120 artists from the European Union, compared with 5% of artists from other

continents.

Sample selection

Strauss and Corbin (1990) distinguished three types of sample selection: open;

relational-fluctuated; and discriminant. Here, we use discriminant criteria, according to

selective codification (Peña, 2006), because we are interested in categorising by

nationality to analyse the mobility of artists between China and Spain. Residencies that

have hosted Chinese artists are our main target group for this study. We chose logical

criteria for the sample.

Five artistic residencies meet the requirements as study objects. This sample is smaller

than we thought we would find, but the results show that the limited size of the sample

has a meaning that we will analyse later in the results’ diagnosis. Creswell (2009) stated

that the size of the sample is not relevant in qualitative studies because the content

adaptation to the research is the most important factor. The residencies are Can Serrat

in El Bruc, the Jiwar Creation and Society in Barcelona, the Térmica in Málaga, the Gas

Natural Fenosa Museum of Contemporary Art in A Coruña and the Platform Laboral Cero

in Gijón. Four of these are urban and one is rural.

Chinese artists detected and selected

Cartographic mapping, exploratory analysis of the digital documentation and surveys to

the artistic residencies led to the selection of fifteen artists and nine residency stays. One

of the stays involved a group of seven artists from the same host institution. The following

table describes the selected artists.

Table 2: Profile of the artists’ residencies

Artist

Residency

City

Network

Date of

stayestadia

Pei- Ying Lin

Plataforma Cero, Laboral

Gijón

Transartis

2015

Chi Po-Hao

Plataforma Cero, Laboral

Gijón

Transartis

2016

Weina ding

Museo de Arte Contemporáneo

Gas Natural Fenosa

A Coruña

Redartis

2012

Siying Zhou

Jiwar Creation & Society

Barcelona

Redartis / Transartis

2013

Chai-mi

Can Serrat

El Bruc. Barcelona

Redartis / Transartis

2014

Dunet Chan Sheung

Can Serrat

El Bruc Barcelona

Redartis / Transartis

2013

Xiao yang li

Can Serrat

El Bruc Barcelona

Redartis / Transartis

2014

Source: Author’s own, 2017

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Silvia María González Fernández

Methodology and results of the interviews

First of all, we have prepared deep interviews focused on examining the role of artists in

the cooperation among countries, and on identifying cultural which values and research

constitute their motivations to travel. We have to take into account that the main

interview limitations are time, reliability, validity and direct observation. Other factors

that are important include barriers such as language and communication channels. All

the respondents have been chosen according to the same criteria (1 to 3 short term

stays, Chinese and to be in Spain for a residency programme)

We have divided the focused interview questions into three blocks (Dexter 1970):

A) Cultural and motivation variables

B) Country image and country perception variables

C) Knowledge transmission and learning experience

Table 3: Interview script

Source: Author’s own, 2017

FACTORS

CODES

QUESTIONS

Cultural factor and

values

(Coook,1962,

Schwartz, 2003;

Hofstede 2016;

Barómetro imagen de

España (2015)

[Discipline]

[Current residency]

[Internacional studies]

[Finance]

[Cultural-values]

[Interaction – cultural - local]

Which is your artistic discipline and

specialization?

Which is your home city?

Where do you currently live?

Which differences or similarities do you see

between Spain, China, Taiwan o Hong Kong?

Has you made Spanish friends and contacts?

Where have you been studying?

How did you get founds?

Spanish culture

factor

(Amir, 1969).

[Grade of involvement in the

residency project]

[Family stay or alone]

How has the residency helped you?

Have you come alone?

Time factor

(Bochner, 1982)

[Contact frequency] [stay duration]

How long have you been in the residence?

Motivation factor

(Bochner, 1982)

[Travel motivation]

Why have you chosen that residency?

Is it the first time that have you had a

residency stay?

Is it the first time that have you been in a

foreign country?

Cultural destination

perception

(Hunt 1975; Etchner y

ritchie,1991,

1993;Noya, 2008;

Anholt,2002; Van Ham,

2001 y 2008;

Saavedra, 2012)

[Country/destination perception]

[Experiences]

[Feelings]

[Visual memories]

Which is the first image that comes to mind

when you think of this experience?

Did you like Spain and the city?

Have you made trips to other cities?

Have you researched before coming to

Spain?

Which are the aspects that you would

highlight of your experience?

Would you come back or which city would you

like to choose to repeat the same

experience?

Technical factors and

knowledge

transmission

(Reisinger, 1994;

Bochner,1982)

[Technical learning] [Knowledge

transmission] [values] [cultural and

virtual leisure]

Have you learnt new techniques?

Are you going to use what you have learnt?

How was the general experience?

Do you belong to a special artist network?

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Silvia María González Fernández

Results of the interviews:

Block 1: Cultural factors and motivations

Seven artists were interviewed, of whom only one, Chai Mi, had a residency in Beijing

(she came with her husband and was sponsored by the New Century Art Foundation, a

private collector in China whose mission is to promote Chinese contemporary art). Most

of them had studied abroad, with only two having studied in their own countries, but

most did not know Spain (two had been there for holidays in Madrid, Barcelona, Granada

and Jerez).

Disciplines’ studies and specialization is another important variable because most of them

have combined different disciplines like sculpture with cinema, design and biology and

programming.

Case 2: Artists. Which is your artistic discipline and specialization?

Code: [Disciplines]

“Art with music, some about art, programming, installation, I use technology to interact

with my job and create new projects”.

Case 4: Artists.

Code: [Disciplines]

“My specialization is really diverse, in visual arts and normally, I do projects that include

media, text, photography, video, sculpture…I explore different disciplines”.

Case 5: Artists.

Code: [Disciplines]

“My specialization is design, but now my artistic practices are relations with

contemporary art. That is what I feel and reflect in my exhibitions”.

The vast majority of the artists have developed their careers in foreign countries. Only

two artists have studies at home.

Case 4: Artists

Code: [International studies]

“I studied visual arts in Australia and did a master degree. Then I stopped and I have

been working. After that I worked in Darwin for 5 years and a half and then moved to

Melbourne to study again and learn. It was something that I needed, to have a feedback

and reviews. I felt that I needed something…and I know that I had so many interruptions

but I needed something else. I have made many exhibitions and nobody was critic with

me, I did not have any opinion of my works, so I needed to improve. You do the work

and that´s all. Here, studies are perfect. This is the moment I needed it, because I have

resources, feedbacks and tutorials. This is so good for me”

Case 6: Artists

Code: [International studies]

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“I studied physical education and I studied a master degree in Arts with cinema

specialization in Hong Kong University”

Among main motivations for choosing the residency, the commonest reason was a

recommendation from a friend.

They were asked about financial requirements and funds. Not all had obtained funding

for their projects. All agreed that they needed financial support but found it hard to obtain

because of lack of knowledge. Some have an exchange agreement with institutions and

some link professional possibilities to the funds. Agreements between countries are

important for immigration and mobility.

Cultural values are studied in a generalist way. Artists have a misunderstanding about

the value concept, so its study was complex. Some of the examples include:

Which differences or similarities do you find between Spain, China, Taiwan and Hong

Kong?

Case 2: Artists

Code: [Cultural values]

“Time is a cultural value”. It is different how people work here; they have thoughts about

cooperation with local people. Here people work less, they have a schedule and they have

more free time. This is not a huge city; it is because there is not too much pressure about

work. In Taipei it is always full and busy. Time as value is a different concept”.

Case 3: Artists

Code: [Cultural values]

“Yes, now is more open. I have been travelling a lot and I see the differences between

Barcelona, Madrid and A Coruña. A Coruña is more local and closed, like the interior of

China. However, it has improved a lot, now it is better. More open. I think that it is

because of the economy development. I remember when I came to Spain, in China there

were not any programs that offered Spanish as a language, and it is difficult to learnt,

but now there are many programs that offer Spanish. Relationships are too much better

now. I found many foreigners at the Beijing airport”.

Case 5: Artists

Code: [Cultural values]

“There are many differences, it is a huge question. Maybe there are many cultural

differences but I did not feel different. In Barcelona I felt so relaxed and with freedom.

It is the first city of Europe where I felt like that. I was in Paris and in Vienna and I always

felt a foreigner, but here no. People are good and kind”.

The question about the host’s role in the process is relevant. Some artists thought that

acceptance by the host meant that they were already receiving help, as they had passed

a filter – not all hosts accept everybody for residency. Also, agreements exist among

residencies and institutions, for example between the Laboral Museum and the

Contemporary Art Museum of Taiwan. Residencies give artists a place to study and

provide food and accommodation. They motivate artists with dinners, festivals and on

some occasions also help to coordinate projects and provide networking.

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Silvia María González Fernández

Many of the artists have engaged in festivals, events, and workshops with Spanish artists

and all mentioned that they had learnt a lot through cultural immersion, seeing other

points of view and learning techniques and technologies to use in future projects. This

enriching environment encourages creation.

The following questions are related to Block B (destination and country´s perception).

We asked artists which was the first image that came to mind when thinking about their

experience. Some of them were unwilling to think. Others thought about the building

capacity and the city, modern and with few people. Other artists remember conversations

with friends in a coffee shop…

Case 1: Artists

Code: [visual memories]

“I did not pay too much attention when I arrived at the airport. I thought it was huge,

but after two days, I though: This is empty…I am really shy, I have always lived in a big

city and I have to speak people every day, but here I am alone and I close the door and

I think…nobody is going to come…there are no people, so I am not going to go out. This

is good because I do not have to make efforts to be more social. I have my mind on my

project, my mind is multitasking and I am always thinking…I have to do this

thing…another one…and here is different because I can be really focused.”

Case 7: Artists

Code: [visual memories]

“Oh my god, this is in the middle of nothing. I am in a foreign country in the middle of

nowhere!”

When we ask about the perception of the country, some of them were astonished because

they thought Spain was more underdeveloped, dirty and disorganised. Rather, they found

clean, tidy and modern cities with light and cultural places. Most of them travel around

Spain and can mention attributes such as Jerez, the Spring festival or Gaudí. Others

underline the nature and the mountain as a part of their experience.

Case 1: Artists

Code [Destinations/country perception]

“It is a big city but not too much. It is modern, it is more moderns than others I saw

while travelling around in Europe, and there is not much people living here comparing to

my home city, because my city is a forest. In Oviedo, I spent one night”.

Case 7: Artists

Code [Destinations/country perception]

“Yes, I love Spanish culture. In fact, I thought I could have an experience focused on

local people. In the residency there were people from other parts of the world like

Sweden, Norwick,…but not local artists. There was one from Madrid but I did not know

him. Maybe I missed this aspect. The residency organised dinners and festivals. One day

there was a music festival and I went out with Spanish artists”.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 12, Nº. 1 (May-October 2021), pp. 31-61

The role of the cultural and creative industries in cultural diplomacy and soft power

between China and the European Union

Silvia María González Fernández

All the artists travelled to Spain without having researched anything before. They did not

know neither the residency nor the city.

The general aspects that they highlight about their experience were the followings:

Case 4: Artists

Code [Experiences]

“I remember the best experiences were the conversations. I interviewed many people

for my project and it was a pleasure. It was a rewarding experience. When I came back

to my country I could not work in the same way, I had enough material to do another

project but I could not recreate the same experience, because it was good. I enjoyed

that project a lot. I think it was the first time that I was in Barcelona to know the city

and the local culture, especially at Christmas. I went to the market, I could see all

traditions…I was the only artist in the programme and I felt like I did something

vocational and social”.

Case 5: Artists

Code [Experiences]

“It was good. I never had this kind of experience before. I could be near the mountain,

and it was great. People in Spain are kind. I spent many funny times with people from

other countries too, such as Pakistan, Australia, United States…and we climbled the

mountain and talked about art”.

All of them found their experience unforgettable and memorable. Some of them

remember the beaches, the spiritual moments, the quiet life and people, others

urbanities, and think that the nature and dinners were the best part of the experience.

When asked if they would repeat the city, they said that they would like to go Barcelona

for professional purposes, except Dunet Chang, who would like to go the Guggenheim,

or Xiao Yang Li, who would like to go to Germany and to the United States. Almost all

would choose Barcelona as a cultural world leader or Madrid because it is the capital of

Spain.

The last block of the deep interviews is the Block C: learning and knowledge experience.

Asked whether they had learnt new methods of learning, all said that they could

reproduce what they had learnt, and that they would do that through workshops, events

and exhibitions. Some argued that they could gather data and had acquired material and

resources to create similar projects – many had recorded all the processes so that they

would always remember.

Case 3: Artists

Code [Cultural and technical learning]

“Yes, I learnt new ideas, we share many experiences with other colleges and this is very

rewarding to help to build new projects. The museum organised so many activities,

courses, workshops and exhibitions with many Spanish artists. It was extremely good”.

Case 7: Artists

Code [Cultural and technical learning]

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Vol. 12, Nº. 1 (May-October 2021), pp. 31-61

The role of the cultural and creative industries in cultural diplomacy and soft power

between China and the European Union

Silvia María González Fernández

“Yes, I learnt different techniques from other foreigners but I had curiosity to use local

materials for my works. I used paintings and wood from the trees…we created a chair. It

was a learning class”.

The final evaluation of the experiences enjoyed during the residencies was positive. All

agreed that they had lived through a marvelous and memorable experience, with plenty

of knowledge of languages, communities and cultures. They would like to repeat the

experience.

Conclusions

Cultural management initiatives are linked to economic progress and openness. The

globalisation of the economy expands friendly ties and removes borders between cities

and states, especially in Europe. Cultural mobility creates new ideas, generates

international networking and stimulates local economy. However, globalisation and

mobility have contributed to the loss of some minorities and cultural identities. They have

also encouraged unfair situations and social conflicts (Lin, 2019).

This article has shown and analysed the multiple problems and barriers (taxes,

bureaucracy, lack of information, legal requirements, languages, logistic and geography

distances or deficiency of funds) that artists must deal with before travelling abroad,

especially from China to Europe and specifically to Spain. Compared with other

continents, there were few Chinese artists in residencies. Travel expenses or lack of

information were the main handicaps to choose Spain as a target destination. Cultural

mobility is a tool to build cooperation and relations and to improve economic and bilateral

treaties. However, it is reflected that the power and prestige of a country is not measured

by its economic weight, but by the rights, communication alternatives, tolerance and

diversity. Nowadays, ease of communication, the development of infrastructures and the

openness of economies have improved travel, tourism, trade and commerce. These, with

faster social media communication and new technologies, have led to peaceful relations

among countries and opened the door for diversity and tolerance. With the pandemic

situation, we have seen how important mobility, freedom and social services are. We

cannot act as an individual island because we are connected worldwide.

Artistic residencies are linked to cultural and creative cities. Florida (2002) has stated

that some cities are poles of attraction for the creative class. These cities are artistic and

creative epicenters with cultural districts that are poles of attraction for talent. He

introduced the three T´s theory (Tolerance, Talent and Technology) to focus cities on the

creative economy as a source of exchange, innovation and creativity. In this sense,

cultural heritage means human cultural heritage, to be recognised and consolidated

globally for future and present generations (UNESCO 2002). Culture is an instrument for

promoting democracy, tolerance, respect and cultural comprehension among countries.

It creates freedom of expression, trust, integration, innovation, rights to gender equality

and economic development. However, it must be taken into consideration that poor

cultural management in cities triggers precarity, social unbalance, economic gaps and

discrimination. We must ponder that the negative and positive consequences of mobility

and cultural globalisation in a place not only depend on how they are managed but also

depend on its previous context and history, culture, regulations and the resources it has.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 12, Nº. 1 (May-October 2021), pp. 31-61

The role of the cultural and creative industries in cultural diplomacy and soft power

between China and the European Union

Silvia María González Fernández

In addition, creative mobility generates and attracts more talent to cities, and, as a

consequence, more events and local economic development. Mobility, in this case, is

used as a tool for communication and cooperation among countries. First of all, they need

previous treaties for cooperation between countries and secondly, artists act as country

ambassadors. They enjoy local traditions and local people, they do exhibitions and they

contribute to communication in press and social media through events, workshops,

exhibitions, projects and traditional media channels. The European Union stated that

residents and cultural exchange are a key part of its cooperation plans. In this case study,

we can see how residents in Spain were disperse through different channels. This paper

has produced and coordinated a new residents’ database with information that did not

exist before, like the location of the residencies (urban or rural areas) and

conglomerations. We have found few Chinese artists compared with the percentage of

artists from other continents outside the European Union. This means that there are still

a lot of barriers to overcome, but the in-depth interviews with Chinese artists suggest

that their experience and cultural exchange was unique and unforgettable. All of them

have learnt and enjoyed it and travelled around Spain, acting as ambassadors. Artists´

residencies are an example of why cultural exchanges are important in the field of cultural

and creative industries to enhance relations, cooperation and promote the image of a

country abroad.

Last, but not least, artists help to create dialogue and sign cultural agreements between

countries. They live a memorable experience and they strengthen ties among people.

Cultural cooperation agreements are the icing on the cake, complemented by economical

and bilateral treaties.

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