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OBSERVARE
Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa
ISSN: 1647-7251
Vol. 2, n.º 1 (Primavera 2011), pp. 119-123
NOTAS E REFLEXÕES
AS RELAÇÕES INTERNACIONAIS, A HISTÓRIA E A ESTRATÉGIA:
O CONFLITO COMO DINÂMICA EXPLICATIVA
Luís Alves de Fraga
Doutorado em História pela Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa (UAL) Mestre em Estratégia pelo ISCSP - UTL Licenciado em Ciências Político-Sociais pelo ISCSP - UTL Coronel da Força Aérea Portuguesa (Reformado)
Professor no Departamento de Relações Internacionais da Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa (UAL)
Desde sempre a explicação do relacionamento entre os Estados foi fundamental para a condução da política externa de cada um. Saber como defender melhor os interesses próprios para evitar expor vulnerabilidades à cobiça e vontade alheias foi determinante, ao longo dos tempos, para os encarregados das negociações as levarem a bom termo com o menor prejuízo possível. A tomada de decisão fazia-se rodeada de cautelas, depois de o decisor ouvir os seus mais prudentes e avisados conselheiros. Tratava-se de homens experientes e hábeis no conhecimento e manobra da teia de intrigas que rodeava o negócio em questão ou o interesse em jogo. A experiência e a habilidade ganhavam-nas na prática vivida ou no estudo da história passada. Esta estimulava estratagemas e razões invocadas ou consequências. Enfim, com experiência vivida ou estudo aprofundado, negociar era uma arte que passava pela descoberta das intenções alheias e pela dissimulação dos interesses próprios. Sempre foi assim e vai continuar a ser assim. Todavia, o século XX trouxe-nos uma novidade: o estudo das relações internacionais ganhou foros científicos e marcou o seu lugar dentro das universidades, quando se começou a tentar definir-lhe contornos de sistemas explicativos das motivações e dos comportamentos dos actores que participam na arena internacional.
Na senda de uma explicação académica do que se deve entender por relações internacionais, Jacques Huntzinger diz-nos que elas «[…] têm por objecto o estudo científico da vida internacional»1, mas, em função da extrema complexidade que esta envolve, esclarece que «As relações internacionais são a ciência dos factos sociais internacionalizados»2. A última afirmação permite-nos englobar como actores relevantes da vida internacional, mais do que os Estados, outras entidades que chegam
Huntzinger, Jacques (1991) Introdução às Relações Internacionais, (tradução portuguesa de Carlos Aboim de Brito), Lisboa: PE – Edições: 9.
Idem, op. cit. 11.
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
ISSN: 1647-7251
Vol. 2, n.º 1 (Primavera 2011), pp. 119-123
As Relações Internacionais, a História e a Estratégia: o conflito como dinâmica explicativa Luís Alves de Fraga
a condicionar a acção e os movimentos daqueles. Ou seja, os pólos da dinâmica da relação internacional extravasaram o âmbito tradicionalmente fechado das chancelarias, para se deslocarem noutros campos bem diversos dos que só à diplomacia respeitavam. Nesta perspectiva, especialmente a partir da segunda metade do século XX, multiplicaram-se os centros de decisão e os centros de poder na vida internacional. Esta multiplicação determinou, também, uma clara ampliação do potencial de conflitualidade nas relações internacionais. Temos, assim, que, para satisfazer a primeira proposição de Huntzinger (estudo científico da vida internacional), por força da ampliação dos actores com relevância internacional, a condição científica obriga a maiores rigores, pois estão dispersos os centros decisórios, interpenetrando-se os interesses e, por conseguinte, as potenciais situações de conflito. E é importante, em nossa opinião, levar em conta que a relação internacional — como toda a relação — podendo passar pela cooperação, passa, também, pelo conflito latente ou declarado. Iríamos, até, mais longe, afirmando que a conflitualidade é o quadro primário no qual se desenrolam as relações internacionais, porque dissimulado na relação está o interesse, e este, porque em confronto com outro, gera o potencial conflito que as partes em presença evitarão para encontrarem o plano de cooperação. Por conseguinte, podemos concluir que o estudo científico das relações internacionais visa, em última análise, a compreensão e explicação das relações de poder que dinâmica e dialecticamente se estabelecem entre os actores da vida internacional.
Marcel Merle chama a atenção para o modo como os historiadores e os politólogos olham para as relações internacionais e deixa-nos esta mensagem muito clara: «[…] o seu papel [o dos historiadores] consiste em restabelecer o passado e não em explicar o presente. A ciência política é […] mais ambiciosa quanto aos seus objectivos e mais limitada quanto aos seus meios, já que se propõe exactamente relatar não somente as coisas do passado como também do presente, não dispondo entretanto do recuo nem das fontes de documentação das quais o historiador beneficia»3. Por outras palavras, para este teórico das relações internacionais, há uma barreira entre o passado e o presente que, geralmente, não é transposta pelos historiadores, compartimentando, assim, os campos de análise e os saberes de uns e de outros.
Ora, Merle coloca uma questão que, quanto a nós, é fundamental: a dificuldade que o politólogo tem em aceder às fontes. E essa é tanto maior quanto mais complexa é a vida internacional, pela existência de inúmeros pólos de decisão dispersos por inúmeros centros decisórios. Deste modo, é mais fácil fazer história do que fazer estudos científicos das relações internacionais pois, a primeira faz-se conhecendo já e antecipadamente os intervenientes e os resultados, ou seja, sabendo — ou podendo saber através de um estudo dinâmico e interactivo dos actores históricos — a teia de conflitos e de cooperações que se desenrolaram em determinado momento para provocar uma certa e conhecida reacção. Esta facilidade permite concluir que o conhecimento histórico é mais fiável — porque assente na dissecação de um corpus inerte e ultrapassado — do que o conhecimento científico das relações internacionais, já que este resulta de uma análise hodierna, carecendo de fontes garantidamente genuínas e provenientes de todos os centros de decisão.
Claro que, no desempenho do seu trabalho, levanta-se ao historiador uma dúvida constante: estará ele na posse de toda a informação que determinou um
3Merle, Marcel (1981). Sociologia das Relações Internacionais, (tradução brasileira de Ivone Jean), Brasília: Editora Universidade de Brasília: 40.
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JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
ISSN: 1647-7251
Vol. 2, n.º 1 (Primavera 2011), pp. 119-123
As Relações Internacionais, a História e a Estratégia: o conflito como dinâmica explicativa Luís Alves de Fraga
acontecimento? Terá o tempo ou o homem subtraído informação que lhe daria um outro entendimento do passado? Essa é a dúvida que ele só consegue sobrepujar através da colocação de hipóteses que encontrem suporte possível na documentação que lhe resta. Note-se que esta incerteza tem um paralelo metodológico na problemática que se põe ao investigador das relações internacionais, pois também ele, por não ter acesso a todas as fontes e centros de decisão, tem de trabalhar com hipóteses. Estas, para o politólogo, por via da multiplicação dos centros de decisão na arena internacional, serão mais falíveis e menos consistentes do que as usadas pelo historiador. Há nas relações internacionais uma fluidez que não existe na história. Por isso, ao olhar para história e para as relações internacionais, enquanto formas científicas de conhecer e explicar o passado e o presente, percebemos que aquela é um excelente auxiliar destas, porque o presente finca-se, de uma maneira ou de outra, nos entendimentos ou nos desentendimentos de antanho. É difícil que ocorram factos em uma qualquer actualidade desgarrados de todo um conjunto de razões antecedentes. Assim, o trabalho científico no âmbito das relações internacionais, para ser absolutamente bem compreendido, terá de levar em conta o trabalho do historiador, mas este último não se pode limitar, quando faz história, ao relato dos factos; tem de ir mais além e procurar a explicação justificativa do acontecimento. Ora, como já vimos, a relação social, seja ela limitada a um pequeno grupo ou tendencialmente global — entrando assim no domínio da relação internacional — está, por natureza dos interesses em jogo, sempre disposta a tornar-se conflitual. Compreender a relação passa, por conseguinte, por entender a dialéctica que a ditou e que lhe determina, em cada instante, as fases que podem conduzir à cooperação ou à ruptura da relação pacífica.
No horizonte do trabalho científico do historiador e, também, no do politólogo que se debruça sobre as relações internacionais, deve perfilar-se uma ciência que se transferiu, recentemente, das academias militares para as universidades por se lhe ter alargado o âmbito de compreensão e de aplicação: a estratégia. Um dos muitos autores tidos como clássicos, o general Beaufre, procurando fugir à definição estritamente militar de estratégia, embora confinando-a também ao plano político, propôs o seguinte conceito: «[…] a arte da dialéctica das vontades que empregam a força para resolver o seu conflito»4. Compreender a estratégia é, como facilmente se depreende da anterior definição, compreender, por um lado, o conflito e, por outro, a dialéctica das vontades, já que, para o efeito do nosso objectivo, deixamos de lado o emprego da força, pois ela pode, afinal, ganhar outros contornos que não os militares ou físicos, na medida em que o conflito pode ser, também, de natureza diversa5. Julgamos estar em condições para, assim, tentar ensaiar uma definição mais geral e, portanto, mais abrangente: estratégia será a arte da dialéctica das vontades em confronto para resolver o conflito que as opõe6. Então, estudar a estratégia corresponderá a estudar a dialéctica das vontades que se confrontam7.
Beaufre, General (1980). Introduccion a la Estratégia, (tradução castelhana de Cármen Martin de la Escalera e Luis Garcia Árias), Madrid: Ediciones Ejercito: 49.
Tome-se em consideração que o conflito mais comum, nos tempos que correm, é o de natureza económica e a este respeito o general Gil Fiévet escreveu uma admirável comparação que intitulou Da Estratégia Militar à Estratégia Empresarial, publicado entre nós, no ano de 1993, editado pela Editorial Inquérito e traduzido por Isabel St. Aubyn.
Em tempos, adoptámos a seguinte definição: estratégia é a ciência que estuda, nas suas múltiplas facetas, os conflitos sociais humanos e as formas de os resolver ou limitar. (A Estratégia, a História e as Relações Internacionais. Revista Militar. N.º 7/8 (Julho/Agosto de 1992): 495. Realçamos neste conceito
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JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
ISSN: 1647-7251
Vol. 2, n.º 1 (Primavera 2011), pp. 119-123
As Relações Internacionais, a História e a Estratégia: o conflito como dinâmica explicativa Luís Alves de Fraga
Para completar a nossa reflexão sobre a importância da articulação da história e da estratégia no estudo científico das relações internacionais, só nos falta perceber que o ponto de convergência de todas as análises — histórica, estratégica e política — terá de ser o conflito, tendo em conta que este, até se tornar evidente, passa por uma escala que vai da cooperação — onde ele é inexistente — até à guerra — onde ele ganha todos os contornos que o definem como fundamentalmente dialéctico. Tome-se o conflito ou a situação pré-conflitual como elemento de análise, estude-se-lhe a dialéctica que lhe é intrínseca, recorrendo à estratégia, e, julgamos, tanto o historiador como o politólogo estarão em condições para explicar a dinâmica do passado e do presente. Esse ensaio já o praticámos aquando da execução da dissertação de mestrado em Estratégia8 e, de forma mais mitigada, quando fizemos toda a investigação para a tese de doutoramento9. Em ambos os trabalhos centrámos a nossa atenção nos diversos cenários conflituais internos ou externos de modo a perceber e explicar como foi sendo beneficiado ou prejudicado o interesse nacional português nas vertentes internas e externas. Ou seja, todo o tipo de conflito que se desenhou na e para a sociedade portuguesa entre 1914 e 1918 foi alvo da nossa atenção para explicar comportamentos políticos internos e externos.
Referências
Beaufre, General (1980). Introduccion a la Estratégia, (tradução castelhana de Cármen Martin de la Escalera e Luis Garcia Árias), Madrid: Ediciones Ejercito.
Fiévet, Gil (1993). Da Estratégia Militar à Estratégia Empresarial, (tradução portuguesa de Isabel St. Aubyn), Mem Martins: Editorial Inquérito.
Fraga, Luís Alves de (1992). A Estratégia, a História e as Relações Internacionais. Revista Militar. N.º 7/8 (Julho/Agosto): 475-496.
Fraga, Luís Alves de (2001). O Fim da Ambiguidade: A Estratégia Nacional Portuguesa
de 1914-1918, Lisboa: Universitária Editora.
Fraga, Luís Alves de (2010). Do Intervencionismo ao Sidonismo. Os Dois Segmentos da Política de Guerra: 1916-1918, Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra.
o facto de a estratégia, para além do mais, ser uma ciência que tem em vista a forma de resolver os conflitos.
Embora não tenhamos dúvidas sobre esta perspectiva, ocorre-nos, contudo, complementá-la com a afirmação feita por Ana Paula Garcês e Guilherme d’Oliveira Martins (Os grandes Mestres da Estratégia: Estudos Sobre o Poder da Guerra e da Paz): «Jogo de inteligência para uns ou de pragmatismo para outros, ensaio permanente de acerto-erro ou regime de expedientes, […]. Certo é que quem primeiro codifica as leis da guerra, Sun Wu, […], enfatiza que a excelência guerreira é vencer os conflitos sem necessidade de usar a força» (p. 22). E damos especial atenção e esta ideia daquele general chinês, que terá vivido no século V a. C., pois nela se sintetiza, de facto, o nosso raciocínio.
Fraga, Luís Alves de (2001). O Fim da Ambiguidade: A Estratégia Nacional Portuguesa de 1914-1918,
Lisboa: Universitária Editora. A tese apresentada, no ano de 1990, no Instituto Superior de Ciências Sociais e Política da Universidade Técnica de Lisboa, tem o título Portugal e a Primeira Grande Guerra: Os objectivos Políticos e Estratégia Nacional: 1914-1916 e está depositada na Biblioteca Nacional, em Lisboa. Trata-se do estudo pioneiro feito em Portugal e no estrangeiro onde, por recurso à análise da conflitualidade existente, se demonstra que a participação de Portugal na Grande Guerra resultou da existência de razões internas e externas determinantes da conveniência da beligerância activa no conflito mundial.
Idem (2010). Do Intervencionismo ao Sidonismo. Os Dois Segmentos da Política de Guerra: 1916-1918,
Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra. Trata-se de um estudo com duas vertentes: uma, descritiva do esforço militar para participar na Grande Guerra; outra, dos cenários de conflitualidade interna e externa que contribuíram para a perda de importância política e militar da participação de Portugal na 1.ª Guerra Mundial.
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JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
ISSN: 1647-7251
Vol. 2, n.º 1 (Primavera 2011), pp. 119-123
As Relações Internacionais, a História e a Estratégia: o conflito como dinâmica explicativa Luís Alves de Fraga
Garcês, Ana Paula; Martins, Guilherme d’Oliveira, edit. (2009). Os grandes Mestres da Estratégia: Estudos Sobre o Poder da Guerra e da Paz, Coimbra: Almedina.
Huntzinger, Jacques (1991). Introdução às Relações Internacionais, (tradução portuguesa de Carlos Aboim de Brito), Lisboa: PE – Edições.
Merle, Marcel (1981). Sociologia das Relações Internacionais, (tradução brasileira de Ivone Jean), Brasília: Editora Universidade de Brasília.
Como citar esta Nota
Fraga, Luís Alves de (2011) "As Relações Internacionais, a História e a Estratégia: o conflito como dinâmica explicativa". Notas e Reflexões, JANUS.NET e-journal of International Relations, Vol. 2, N.º 1, Primavera 2011. Consultado [online] em data da última consulta, observare.ual.pt/janus.net/pt_vol2_n1_not1.
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